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CIE A-Level Chemistry

Study Notes
1.1.1 Atomic Composition and Characteristics
1.1.2 Atomic and Nuclear Properties
1.1.3 Particle Numbers and Atomic Radius
1.2.1 Isotope Fundamentals
1.2.2 Trends and Factors in Ionisation Energy
1.3.1 Introduction to Energy Levels and Electron Configuration
1.3.2 Orbital Shapes and Electron Arrangement
2.1.1 Understanding Relative Masses
2.1.2 Molecular Mass Concepts
2.2.1 Mole and Avogadro's Constant
2.3.1 Writing Chemical Formulas
2.3.2 Understanding Empirical and Molecular Formulas
2.3.3 Balancing Equations and Ionic Equations
2.4.1 Mole Calculations in Reactions
2.4.2 Application in Real-world Scenarios
3.1.1 Understanding Electronegativity
3.1.2 Electronegativity Trends in Chemistry
3.1.3 Predicting Bond Types Using Pauling Electronegativity Values
3.2.1 Defining Ionic Bonding
3.2.2 Characteristics of Ionic Compounds
3.3.1 Nature of Metallic Bonding
3.4.1 Introduction to Covalent Bonding
3.4.2 Coordinate Bonding
3.5.1 VSEPR Theory: Understanding Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles
3.5.2 Predicting Shapes and Bond Angles in Molecules
3.6.1 Intermolecular Forces: An In-Depth Study
3.6.2 Effects of Electronegativity
3.6.3 Bonding vs. Intermolecular Forces: A Detailed Comparison
3.7.1 Illustrating Bonding
4.1.1 Gas Pressure and Particle Collisions
4.1.2 Ideal Gas Characteristics
4.1.3 Ideal Gas Law Applications
4.2.1 Lattice Structures
4.2.2 Physical Properties and Bonding in Solid Structures
4.2.3 Deduction of Bonding Types
5.1.1 Nature of Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions
5.1.2 Reaction Pathway Diagrams
5.1.3 Standard Conditions and Enthalpy Terms
5.1.4 Bond Energies and Reaction Energy Transfers
5.1.5 Calculating Enthalpy Changes from Experiments
5.2.1 Application of Hess’s Law
5.2.2 Calculations Using Energy Cycles
6.1.1 Oxidation Numbers and Balancing Equations
6.1.2 Understanding Redox Terminology
6.1.3 Agents in Redox Reactions
7.1.1 Reversible Reactions and Dynamic Equilibrium
7.1.2 Le Chatelier’s Principle
7.2.1 Brønsted–Lowry Theory in Acids, Bases, and Salts
7.2.2 Understanding pH and Neutralisation
7.2.3 Titration and Indicators
8.1.1 Understanding Rate of Reaction
8.1.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
8.2.1 Activation Energy: The Gateway to Chemical Reactions
8.2.2 Temperature Effects on Reaction Rates
8.3.1 Understanding Catalysts
9.1.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii in Period 3
9.1.2 Melting Points and Electrical Conductivity
9.2.1 Reactions with Oxygen, Chlorine, and Water
9.2.2 Oxidation States of Oxides and Chlorides in Period 3 Elements
9.2.3 Reactions of Oxides with Water and pH
9.2.4 Acid/Base Behaviour of Oxides and Hydroxides in Period 3
9.2.5 Reactions of Chlorides with Water and pH
9.2.6 Trends in Bonding and Electronegativity in Period 3 Elements
9.3.1 Predicting Properties of Other Elements Beyond Period 3
10.1.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements
10.1.2 Reactions of Group 2 Compounds
10.1.3 Thermal Decomposition of Group 2 Nitrates and Carbonates
10.1.4 Physical and Chemical Trends in Group 2 Elements
11.1.1 Colors and Volatility of Group 17 Elements
11.1.2 Bond Strength Trends in Halogen Molecules
11.2.1 Reactivity as Oxidizing Agents in Group 17 Elements
11.2.2 Reactions of Halogens with Hydrogen
11.2.3 Thermal Stability of Hydrogen Halides
11.3.1 Reducing Power of Halide Ions
11.3.2 Reactions with Silver Ions and Sulfuric Acid
11.4.1 Chlorine and Disproportionation Reactions
12.1.1 Nitrogen's Reactivity and Its Triple Bond
12.1.2 Ammonia and Ammonium
12.1.3 Oxides of Nitrogen
12.2.1 Oxides of Sulfur and Acid Rain
13.1.1 Hydrocarbons and Functional Groups
13.1.2 Organic Formulas and Nomenclature
13.2.1 Introduction to Reaction Terminology in Organic Chemistry
13.2.2 Reaction Mechanisms
13.3.1 Molecular Structure and Bonding
13.4.1 Introduction to Structural Isomerism
13.4.2 Introduction to Stereoisomerism in Organic Chemistry
13.4.3 Isomer Deduction in Organic Chemistry
14.1.1 Production Methods of Alkanes
14.1.2 Combustion Reactions of Alkanes
14.1.3 Free Radical Substitution in Alkanes
14.1.4 Reaction Mechanisms
14.1.5 Cracking and Environmental Impact
14.1.6 Chemical Reactivity of Alkanes
14.2.1.1 Production Methods: Alkenes
14.2.1.2 Dehydration Reactions in Alkenes
14.2.1.3 From Cracking
14.2.2 Electrophilic Addition Reactions
14.2.3 Test for Unsaturation in Alkenes
14.2.4 Mechanism and Stability in Alkenes
15.1.1 Synthesis of Halogenoalkanes
15.1.2 Classification and Nucleophilic Substitution
15.1.3 Elimination and Reaction Mechanisms in Halogenoalkanes
15.1.4 Reactivity and Bond Strengths in Halogenoalkanes
15.1.5 Environmental Impact of Halogenoalkane Emissions
16.1.3 Classification and Identification of Alcohols
16.1.1 Synthesis of Alcohols
16.1.2 Reactions Involving Alcohols
16.1.4 Acidity of Alcohols
17.1.1 Synthesis of Aldehydes and Ketones
17.1.2 Reduction and Nucleophilic Addition
17.1.3 Mechanism of Cyanohydrin Formation
17.1.4 Detection of Carbonyl Compounds with 2,4-DNPH (Brady's Reagent)
17.1.5 Discrimination Tests for Carbonyl Compounds
17.1.6 Iodoform Test for Methyl Carbonyls
18.1.1 Synthesis of Carboxylic Acids
18.1.2 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
18.2.1 Formation of Esters
18.2.2 Hydrolysis of Esters
19.1.1 Synthesis of Primary Amines
19.2.1 Formation of Nitriles
19.2.3 Hydrolysis of Nitriles to Carboxylic Acids
19.2.2 Formation of Hydroxynitriles
20.1.1 Addition Polymerisation: Description and Process
20.1.2 Deduction of Repeat Units in Addition Polymerisation
20.1.3 Environmental Considerations in Addition Polymerisation
21.1.1 Functional Group Identification in Organic Chemistry
21.1.2 Predicting Properties and Reactions in Organic Chemistry
21.1.3 Devising Synthetic Routes in Organic Synthesis
21.1.4 Analyzing Synthetic Routes in Organic Chemistry
22.1.1 Analysis of IR Spectra
22.2.1 Analysis of Mass Spectra
22.2.2 Fragmentation Patterns in Mass Spectrometry
23.1.1 Enthalpy Change of Atomisation (ΔHₐₜₒₘᵢₛₐₜᵢₒₙ)
23.1.2 Lattice Energy: Understanding ΔH_lattice in Ionic Compounds
23.1.3 Electron Affinity in Chemistry
23.1.4 Born-Haber Cycles in Lattice Energy Calculations
23.1.5 Factors Affecting Lattice Energy
23.2.1 Enthalpy Changes in Chemistry: Exploring Hydration and Solution Processes
23.2.2 Energy Cycles in Chemistry
23.2.3 Effects of Ionic Charge and Radius on Enthalpy Change of Hydration
23.3.1 Entropy: The Measure of Disorder in Systems
23.3.2 Calculating Entropy Change, ΔS
23.4.1 Gibbs Free Energy Change, ΔG
23.4.2 Predicting Reaction Feasibility: Understanding ΔG
24.1.1 Principles of Electrolysis
24.1.2 Calculations in Electrolysis
24.1.3 Avogadro Constant Determination through Electrolysis
24.2.1 Introduction to Electrode Potentials
24.2.2 Measurement Techniques in Electrochemistry
24.2.3 Cell Potential Calculations
24.2.4 Electrode Potentials and Reactivity
24.2.5 Nernst Equation and Applications
25.1.1 Acid-Base Conjugates
25.1.2 pH and Acidity Constants
25.1.3 Buffer Solutions
25.1.4 Buffer Solution pH Calculations
25.1.5 Understanding Solubility Product (Ksp) and Common Ion Effect in Chemistry
25.2.1 Partition Coefficient Fundamentals
25.2.2 Calculations and Applications of Partition Coefficients
25.2.3 Factors Affecting the Partition Coefficient (Kpc)
26.1.1 Rate Equations and Reaction Orders
26.1.2 Kinetics of Multi-Step Reactions
26.2.1 Mechanisms of Catalysis
27.1.1 Thermal Stability of Group 2 Compounds
27.1.2 Group 2 Elements: Solubility and Enthalpy Changes
28.1.1 Characteristics of Transition Elements
28.1.2 Catalytic Properties and Complex Formation of Transition Elements
28.2.1 Complexes and Ligands Element
28.3.1 Introduction to Orbital Splitting and Colour in Complexes
28.4.1 Stereoisomerism in Complexes
28.5.1 Defining and Calculating Stability Constants
29.4.1 Optical Isomerism and Biological Activity
29.4.2 Racemic Mixtures and Chiral Synthesis
29.1.1 Understanding Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry
29.1.2 Mastery of Organic Formulas
29.1.3 Systematic Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
29.2.1 Understanding Organic Reaction Mechanisms
29.3.1 Introduction to Benzene Structure and Aromaticity
30.1.1 Chemistry and Reactions of Arenes
30.1.2 Mechanism of Electrophilic Substitution in Arenes
30.1.3 Positional Selectivity in Halogenation
30.1.4 Substituent Directing Effects in Electrophilic Substitution
31.1.1 Production of Halogenoarenes
31.1.2 Reactivity of Halogenoalkanes vs. Halogenoarenes
32.1.1 Reaction of Alcohols with Acyl Chlorides
32.2.1 Production of Phenol from Phenylamine
32.2.2 Reactions Involving Phenol
32.2.3 Acidic Nature of Phenol
32.2.4 Comparative Reactivity in Nitration and Bromination of Phenol and Benzene
32.2.5 Substituent Effects in Phenol
32.2.6 Reactions of Other Phenolic Compounds
33.1.1 Synthesis of Benzoic Acid
33.1.2 Conversion of Carboxylic Acids to Acyl Chlorides
33.1.3 Oxidation Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
33.1.4 Comparative Acid Strengths in Carboxylic Acids
33.2.1 Esterification of Alcohols and Acyl Chlorides
33.3.1 Production of Acyl Chlorides
33.3.2 Reactions Involving Acyl Chlorides
33.3.3 Reaction Mechanisms of Acyl Chlorides
33.3.4 Hydrolysis Comparison: Acyl Chlorides, Alkyl Chlorides, and Halogenoarenes
34.1.1 Synthesis of Amines
34.1.2 Amine and Acyl Chloride Reactions
34.1.3 Basicity of Amines in Aqueous Solutions
34.2.1 Preparation of Phenylamine
34.2.2 Reactions of Phenylamine
34.2.3 Basicity of Phenylamine
34.2.4 Azo Compounds and Dyes
34.3.1 Amide Formation
34.3.2 Amide Reactions
34.3.3 Amide Basicity
34.4.1 Properties and Zwitterions
34.4.2 Peptide Bonding in Amino Acids
34.4.3 Amino Acid Electrophoresis
35.1.1 Introduction to Polyesters Formation
35.1.2 Polyamides Formation
35.1.3 Repeat Unit Deduction in Condensation Polymers
35.1.4 Monomer Identification in Condensation Polymers
35.2.1 Predicting the Type of Polymerisation
35.2.2 Polymer Section Analysis
35.3.1 Poly(alkenes) and Biodegradation
35.3.2 Light-Degradable Polymers
35.3.3 Biodegradation of Polyesters and Polyamides
36.1.1 Functional Group Identification in Organic Synthesis
36.1.2 Prediction of Properties and Reactions in Organic Molecules
36.1.3 Multi-Step Synthesis Design in Organic Chemistry
37.1.3 Understanding Rf Values and Molecular Interaction in Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)
37.1.1 Understanding TLC Components
37.1.2 Rf Values Interpretation
37.2.2 Chromatogram Analysis in Gas/Liquid Chromatography (GLC)
37.2.1 Gas/Liquid Chromatography (GLC) Technique Fundamentals
37.2.3 Retention Time Explanation in Gas/Liquid Chromatography (GLC)
37.3.1 Carbon-13 NMR Spectrum Analysis
37.3.2 Peak Prediction in Carbon-13 NMR Spectroscopy
37.4.3 NMR Reference and Solvent Use
37.4.2 Chemical Shifts and Splitting Patterns in Proton (1H) NMR Spectroscopy
37.4.4 Identification with Proton Exchange in 1H NMR Spectroscopy
37.4.1 Proton (1H) NMR Spectrum Analysis

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