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CIE A-Level Chemistry

Study Notes
1.1.1 Atomic Composition and Characteristics1.1.2 Atomic and Nuclear Properties1.1.3 Particle Numbers and Atomic Radius
1.2.1 Isotope Fundamentals1.2.2 Trends and Factors in Ionisation Energy
1.3.1 Introduction to Energy Levels and Electron Configuration1.3.2 Orbital Shapes and Electron Arrangement
2.1.1 Understanding Relative Masses2.1.2 Molecular Mass Concepts
2.2.1 Mole and Avogadro's Constant
2.3.1 Writing Chemical Formulas2.3.2 Understanding Empirical and Molecular Formulas2.3.3 Balancing Equations and Ionic Equations
2.4.1 Mole Calculations in Reactions2.4.2 Application in Real-world Scenarios
3.1.1 Understanding Electronegativity3.1.2 Electronegativity Trends in Chemistry3.1.3 Predicting Bond Types Using Pauling Electronegativity Values
3.2.1 Defining Ionic Bonding3.2.2 Characteristics of Ionic Compounds
3.3.1 Nature of Metallic Bonding
3.4.1 Introduction to Covalent Bonding3.4.2 Coordinate Bonding
3.5.1 VSEPR Theory: Understanding Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles3.5.2 Predicting Shapes and Bond Angles in Molecules
3.6.1 Intermolecular Forces: An In-Depth Study3.6.2 Effects of Electronegativity3.6.3 Bonding vs. Intermolecular Forces: A Detailed Comparison
3.7.1 Illustrating Bonding
4.1.1 Gas Pressure and Particle Collisions4.1.2 Ideal Gas Characteristics4.1.3 Ideal Gas Law Applications
4.2.1 Lattice Structures4.2.2 Physical Properties and Bonding in Solid Structures4.2.3 Deduction of Bonding Types
5.1.1 Nature of Enthalpy Changes in Chemical Reactions5.1.2 Reaction Pathway Diagrams5.1.3 Standard Conditions and Enthalpy Terms5.1.4 Bond Energies and Reaction Energy Transfers5.1.5 Calculating Enthalpy Changes from Experiments
5.2.1 Application of Hess’s Law5.2.2 Calculations Using Energy Cycles
6.1.1 Oxidation Numbers and Balancing Equations6.1.2 Understanding Redox Terminology6.1.3 Agents in Redox Reactions
7.1.1 Reversible Reactions and Dynamic Equilibrium7.1.2 Le Chatelier’s Principle
7.2.1 Brønsted–Lowry Theory in Acids, Bases, and Salts7.2.2 Understanding pH and Neutralisation7.2.3 Titration and Indicators
8.1.1 Understanding Rate of Reaction8.1.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
8.2.1 Activation Energy: The Gateway to Chemical Reactions8.2.2 Temperature Effects on Reaction Rates
8.3.1 Understanding Catalysts
9.1.1 Atomic and Ionic Radii in Period 39.1.2 Melting Points and Electrical Conductivity
9.2.1 Reactions with Oxygen, Chlorine, and Water9.2.2 Oxidation States of Oxides and Chlorides in Period 3 Elements9.2.3 Reactions of Oxides with Water and pH9.2.4 Acid/Base Behaviour of Oxides and Hydroxides in Period 39.2.5 Reactions of Chlorides with Water and pH9.2.6 Trends in Bonding and Electronegativity in Period 3 Elements
9.3.1 Predicting Properties of Other Elements Beyond Period 3
10.1.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements10.1.2 Reactions of Group 2 Compounds10.1.3 Thermal Decomposition of Group 2 Nitrates and Carbonates10.1.4 Physical and Chemical Trends in Group 2 Elements
11.1.1 Colors and Volatility of Group 17 Elements11.1.2 Bond Strength Trends in Halogen Molecules
11.2.1 Reactivity as Oxidizing Agents in Group 17 Elements11.2.2 Reactions of Halogens with Hydrogen11.2.3 Thermal Stability of Hydrogen Halides
11.3.1 Reducing Power of Halide Ions11.3.2 Reactions with Silver Ions and Sulfuric Acid
11.4.1 Chlorine and Disproportionation Reactions
12.1.1 Nitrogen's Reactivity and Its Triple Bond12.1.2 Ammonia and Ammonium12.1.3 Oxides of Nitrogen
12.2.1 Oxides of Sulfur and Acid Rain
13.1.1 Hydrocarbons and Functional Groups13.1.2 Organic Formulas and Nomenclature
13.2.1 Introduction to Reaction Terminology in Organic Chemistry13.2.2 Reaction Mechanisms
13.3.1 Molecular Structure and Bonding
13.4.1 Introduction to Structural Isomerism13.4.2 Introduction to Stereoisomerism in Organic Chemistry13.4.3 Isomer Deduction in Organic Chemistry
14.1.1 Production Methods of Alkanes14.1.2 Combustion Reactions of Alkanes14.1.3 Free Radical Substitution in Alkanes14.1.4 Reaction Mechanisms14.1.5 Cracking and Environmental Impact14.1.6 Chemical Reactivity of Alkanes
14.2.1.1 Production Methods: Alkenes14.2.1.2 Dehydration Reactions in Alkenes14.2.1.3 From Cracking14.2.2 Electrophilic Addition Reactions14.2.3 Test for Unsaturation in Alkenes14.2.4 Mechanism and Stability in Alkenes
15.1.1 Synthesis of Halogenoalkanes15.1.2 Classification and Nucleophilic Substitution15.1.3 Elimination and Reaction Mechanisms in Halogenoalkanes 15.1.4 Reactivity and Bond Strengths in Halogenoalkanes15.1.5 Environmental Impact of Halogenoalkane Emissions
16.1.3 Classification and Identification of Alcohols16.1.1 Synthesis of Alcohols16.1.2 Reactions Involving Alcohols16.1.4 Acidity of Alcohols
17.1.1 Synthesis of Aldehydes and Ketones17.1.2 Reduction and Nucleophilic Addition17.1.3 Mechanism of Cyanohydrin Formation17.1.4 Detection of Carbonyl Compounds with 2,4-DNPH (Brady's Reagent)17.1.5 Discrimination Tests for Carbonyl Compounds17.1.6 Iodoform Test for Methyl Carbonyls
18.1.1 Synthesis of Carboxylic Acids18.1.2 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
18.2.1 Formation of Esters18.2.2 Hydrolysis of Esters
19.1.1 Synthesis of Primary Amines
19.2.1 Formation of Nitriles19.2.3 Hydrolysis of Nitriles to Carboxylic Acids19.2.2 Formation of Hydroxynitriles
20.1.1 Addition Polymerisation: Description and Process20.1.2 Deduction of Repeat Units in Addition Polymerisation20.1.3 Environmental Considerations in Addition Polymerisation
21.1.1 Functional Group Identification in Organic Chemistry21.1.2 Predicting Properties and Reactions in Organic Chemistry21.1.3 Devising Synthetic Routes in Organic Synthesis21.1.4 Analyzing Synthetic Routes in Organic Chemistry
22.1.1 Analysis of IR Spectra
22.2.1 Analysis of Mass Spectra22.2.2 Fragmentation Patterns in Mass Spectrometry
23.1.1 Enthalpy Change of Atomisation (ΔHₐₜₒₘᵢₛₐₜᵢₒₙ)23.1.2 Lattice Energy: Understanding ΔH_lattice in Ionic Compounds23.1.3 Electron Affinity in Chemistry23.1.4 Born-Haber Cycles in Lattice Energy Calculations23.1.5 Factors Affecting Lattice Energy
23.2.1 Enthalpy Changes in Chemistry: Exploring Hydration and Solution Processes23.2.2 Energy Cycles in Chemistry23.2.3 Effects of Ionic Charge and Radius on Enthalpy Change of Hydration
23.3.1 Entropy: The Measure of Disorder in Systems23.3.2 Calculating Entropy Change, ΔS
23.4.1 Gibbs Free Energy Change, ΔG23.4.2 Predicting Reaction Feasibility: Understanding ΔG
24.1.1 Principles of Electrolysis24.1.2 Calculations in Electrolysis24.1.3 Avogadro Constant Determination through Electrolysis
24.2.1 Introduction to Electrode Potentials24.2.2 Measurement Techniques in Electrochemistry24.2.3 Cell Potential Calculations24.2.4 Electrode Potentials and Reactivity24.2.5 Nernst Equation and Applications
25.1.1 Acid-Base Conjugates25.1.2 pH and Acidity Constants25.1.3 Buffer Solutions25.1.4 Buffer Solution pH Calculations25.1.5 Understanding Solubility Product (Ksp) and Common Ion Effect in Chemistry
25.2.1 Partition Coefficient Fundamentals25.2.2 Calculations and Applications of Partition Coefficients25.2.3 Factors Affecting the Partition Coefficient (Kpc)
26.1.1 Rate Equations and Reaction Orders26.1.2 Kinetics of Multi-Step Reactions
26.2.1 Mechanisms of Catalysis
27.1.1 Thermal Stability of Group 2 Compounds27.1.2 Group 2 Elements: Solubility and Enthalpy Changes
28.1.1 Characteristics of Transition Elements28.1.2 Catalytic Properties and Complex Formation of Transition Elements
28.2.1 Complexes and Ligands Element
28.3.1 Introduction to Orbital Splitting and Colour in Complexes
28.4.1 Stereoisomerism in Complexes
28.5.1 Defining and Calculating Stability Constants
29.4.1 Optical Isomerism and Biological Activity29.4.2 Racemic Mixtures and Chiral Synthesis
29.1.1 Understanding Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry29.1.2 Mastery of Organic Formulas29.1.3 Systematic Nomenclature of Organic Compounds
29.2.1 Understanding Organic Reaction Mechanisms
29.3.1 Introduction to Benzene Structure and Aromaticity
30.1.1 Chemistry and Reactions of Arenes 30.1.2 Mechanism of Electrophilic Substitution in Arenes30.1.3 Positional Selectivity in Halogenation30.1.4 Substituent Directing Effects in Electrophilic Substitution
31.1.1 Production of Halogenoarenes31.1.2 Reactivity of Halogenoalkanes vs. Halogenoarenes
32.1.1 Reaction of Alcohols with Acyl Chlorides
32.2.1 Production of Phenol from Phenylamine32.2.2 Reactions Involving Phenol32.2.3 Acidic Nature of Phenol32.2.4 Comparative Reactivity in Nitration and Bromination of Phenol and Benzene32.2.5 Substituent Effects in Phenol32.2.6 Reactions of Other Phenolic Compounds
33.1.1 Synthesis of Benzoic Acid33.1.2 Conversion of Carboxylic Acids to Acyl Chlorides33.1.3 Oxidation Reactions of Carboxylic Acids33.1.4 Comparative Acid Strengths in Carboxylic Acids
33.2.1 Esterification of Alcohols and Acyl Chlorides
33.3.1 Production of Acyl Chlorides33.3.2 Reactions Involving Acyl Chlorides33.3.3 Reaction Mechanisms of Acyl Chlorides33.3.4 Hydrolysis Comparison: Acyl Chlorides, Alkyl Chlorides, and Halogenoarenes
34.1.1 Synthesis of Amines34.1.2 Amine and Acyl Chloride Reactions34.1.3 Basicity of Amines in Aqueous Solutions
34.2.1 Preparation of Phenylamine34.2.2 Reactions of Phenylamine34.2.3 Basicity of Phenylamine34.2.4 Azo Compounds and Dyes
34.3.1 Amide Formation34.3.2 Amide Reactions34.3.3 Amide Basicity
34.4.1 Properties and Zwitterions34.4.2 Peptide Bonding in Amino Acids34.4.3 Amino Acid Electrophoresis
35.1.1 Introduction to Polyesters Formation35.1.2 Polyamides Formation35.1.3 Repeat Unit Deduction in Condensation Polymers35.1.4 Monomer Identification in Condensation Polymers
35.2.1 Predicting the Type of Polymerisation35.2.2 Polymer Section Analysis
35.3.1 Poly(alkenes) and Biodegradation35.3.2 Light-Degradable Polymers35.3.3 Biodegradation of Polyesters and Polyamides
36.1.1 Functional Group Identification in Organic Synthesis36.1.2 Prediction of Properties and Reactions in Organic Molecules36.1.3 Multi-Step Synthesis Design in Organic Chemistry
37.1.3 Understanding Rf Values and Molecular Interaction in Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC)37.1.1 Understanding TLC Components37.1.2 Rf Values Interpretation
37.2.2 Chromatogram Analysis in Gas/Liquid Chromatography (GLC)37.2.1 Gas/Liquid Chromatography (GLC) Technique Fundamentals37.2.3 Retention Time Explanation in Gas/Liquid Chromatography (GLC)
37.3.1 Carbon-13 NMR Spectrum Analysis37.3.2 Peak Prediction in Carbon-13 NMR Spectroscopy
37.4.3 NMR Reference and Solvent Use37.4.2 Chemical Shifts and Splitting Patterns in Proton (1H) NMR Spectroscopy37.4.4 Identification with Proton Exchange in 1H NMR Spectroscopy37.4.1 Proton (1H) NMR Spectrum Analysis

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