1. Characteristics and Classification of Living Organisms1.1 Characteristics of Living Organisms1.1.1 Essential Life Processes1.2 Biological Classification Systems1.2.1 Principles of Biological Classification1.2.2 Species Concept and Nomenclature1.2.3 Dichotomous Keys and Evolutionary Relationships1.3 Features for Classification1.3.1 Kingdom Classification1.3.2 Classification within Animal and Plant Kingdoms1.3.3 Practical Classification and Viral Characteristics1. Characteristics and Classification of Living Organisms1.1 Characteristics of Living Organisms1.1.1 Essential Life Processes1.2 Biological Classification Systems1.2.1 Principles of Biological Classification1.2.2 Species Concept and Nomenclature1.2.3 Dichotomous Keys and Evolutionary Relationships1.3 Features for Classification1.3.1 Kingdom Classification1.3.2 Classification within Animal and Plant Kingdoms1.3.3 Practical Classification and Viral Characteristics2. Organisation of the Organism2.1 Cell Structure2.1.1 Plant and Animal Cell Structure2.1.2 Bacterial Cell Structure2.1.3 Cell Structure Identification2.1.4 Functions of Cell Structures2.1.5 Cell Division2.1.6 Specialised Cells and Their Functions2.1.7 Levels of Organisation in Biology2.2 Size of Specimens2.2.1 Understanding Magnification in Biology2.2.2 Calculating Magnification and Size in Biology2.2.3 Conversion of Measurements in Biology2. Organisation of the Organism2.1 Cell Structure2.1.1 Plant and Animal Cell Structure2.1.2 Bacterial Cell Structure2.1.3 Cell Structure Identification2.1.4 Functions of Cell Structures2.1.5 Cell Division2.1.6 Specialised Cells and Their Functions2.1.7 Levels of Organisation in Biology2.2 Size of Specimens2.2.1 Understanding Magnification in Biology2.2.2 Calculating Magnification and Size in Biology2.2.3 Conversion of Measurements in Biology3. Movement into and out of Cells3.1 Diffusion3.1.1 Fundamentals and Importance of Diffusion3.1.2 Factors Affecting Diffusion3.2 Osmosis3.2.1 Process and Effects of Osmosis3.2.2 Water Potential and Organismal Water Balance3.2.3 Practical Investigations in Osmosis3.3 Active Transport3.3.1 Active Transport: Mechanism and Role3.3.2 Protein Carriers in Active Transport3. Movement into and out of Cells3.1 Diffusion3.1.1 Fundamentals and Importance of Diffusion3.1.2 Factors Affecting Diffusion3.2 Osmosis3.2.1 Process and Effects of Osmosis3.2.2 Water Potential and Organismal Water Balance3.2.3 Practical Investigations in Osmosis3.3 Active Transport3.3.1 Active Transport: Mechanism and Role3.3.2 Protein Carriers in Active Transport4. Biological Molecules4.1 Biological Molecules4.1.1 Composition of Biological Molecules4.1.2 Formation of Large Molecules4.1.3 Chemical Tests for Biological Molecules4.1.4 Structure of DNA4. Biological Molecules4.1 Biological Molecules4.1.1 Composition of Biological Molecules4.1.2 Formation of Large Molecules4.1.3 Chemical Tests for Biological Molecules4.1.4 Structure of DNA5. Enzymes5.1 Fundamentals of Enzymes5.1.1 Fundamentals of Enzymes: Catalysts and Enzymes5.1.2 Enzyme Action and Specificity5.2 Effects on Enzyme Activity5.2.1 Effects on Enzyme Activity: Temperature and Enzyme Activity5.2.2 pH and Enzyme Activity5. Enzymes5.1 Fundamentals of Enzymes5.1.1 Fundamentals of Enzymes: Catalysts and Enzymes5.1.2 Enzyme Action and Specificity5.2 Effects on Enzyme Activity5.2.1 Effects on Enzyme Activity: Temperature and Enzyme Activity5.2.2 pH and Enzyme Activity6. Plant Nutrition6.1 Photosynthesis6.1.1 Fundamentals of Photosynthesis6.1.2 Use and Storage of Carbohydrates in Photosynthesis6.1.3 Essential Elements and Photosynthesis in Plants6.1.4 Investigating Photosynthesis6.1.5 Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis6.2 Leaf Structure6.2.1 Adaptations for Photosynthesis6.2.2 Leaf Structures in Photosynthesis6. Plant Nutrition6.1 Photosynthesis6.1.1 Fundamentals of Photosynthesis6.1.2 Use and Storage of Carbohydrates in Photosynthesis6.1.3 Essential Elements and Photosynthesis in Plants6.1.4 Investigating Photosynthesis6.1.5 Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis6.2 Leaf Structure6.2.1 Adaptations for Photosynthesis6.2.2 Leaf Structures in Photosynthesis7. Human Nutrition7.1 Diet7.1.1 Understanding a Balanced Diet7.1.2 Deficiency Diseases7.2 Digestive System7.2.1 Structure of the Digestive System7.3 Physical Digestion7.3.1 Physical Digestion Process7.3.2 Human Teeth and Digestion in Physical Digestion7.3.3 Role of Bile in Fat Emulsification7.4 Chemical Digestion7.4.1 Chemical Digestion Process7.4.2 Enzymatic Functions in Digestion7.4.3 Role of Hydrochloric Acid in the Digestive System7.5 Absorption7.5.1 Absorption in the Small Intestine7.5.2 Structure and Function of Villi in the Small Intestine7. Human Nutrition7.1 Diet7.1.1 Understanding a Balanced Diet7.1.2 Deficiency Diseases7.2 Digestive System7.2.1 Structure of the Digestive System7.3 Physical Digestion7.3.1 Physical Digestion Process7.3.2 Human Teeth and Digestion in Physical Digestion7.3.3 Role of Bile in Fat Emulsification7.4 Chemical Digestion7.4.1 Chemical Digestion Process7.4.2 Enzymatic Functions in Digestion7.4.3 Role of Hydrochloric Acid in the Digestive System7.5 Absorption7.5.1 Absorption in the Small Intestine7.5.2 Structure and Function of Villi in the Small Intestine8. Transport in Plants8.1 Xylem and Phloem8.1.1 Functions of Xylem and Phloem8.1.2 Structure and Location of Xylem and Phloem in Non-Woody Dicotyledonous Plants8.2 Water Uptake8.2.1 Root Hair Cells8.2.2 Water Pathway in Plants8.2.3 Investigating Water Transport in Plants8.3 Transpiration8.3.1 Transpiration: The Vital Process in Plants8.3.2 Factors Affecting Transpiration8.3.3 Mechanism of Water Movement in Plants8.3.4 Wilting Mechanism in Plants8.4 Translocation8.4.1 Process of Translocation8.4.2 Source-Sink Dynamics in Plants8. Transport in Plants8.1 Xylem and Phloem8.1.1 Functions of Xylem and Phloem8.1.2 Structure and Location of Xylem and Phloem in Non-Woody Dicotyledonous Plants8.2 Water Uptake8.2.1 Root Hair Cells8.2.2 Water Pathway in Plants8.2.3 Investigating Water Transport in Plants8.3 Transpiration8.3.1 Transpiration: The Vital Process in Plants8.3.2 Factors Affecting Transpiration8.3.3 Mechanism of Water Movement in Plants8.3.4 Wilting Mechanism in Plants8.4 Translocation8.4.1 Process of Translocation8.4.2 Source-Sink Dynamics in Plants9. Transport in Animals9.1 Circulatory Systems9.1.1 Principles of Circulatory Systems9.1.2 Types of Circulatory Systems9.2 Heart9.2.1 Anatomy of the Mammalian Heart9.2.2 Heart Functioning and Health9.2.3 Monitoring Heart Activity9.3 Blood Vessels9.3.1 Arteries and Veins: Essential Components of the Circulatory System9.3.2 Capillaries and Exchange Processes9.3.3 Vascular Pathways9.3.4 Blood Vessel Adaptations9.4 Blood9.4.1 Blood Components9.4.2 Blood Cell Identification9.4.3 Blood Clotting Process9.4.4 Immune Functions of Blood9. Transport in Animals9.1 Circulatory Systems9.1.1 Principles of Circulatory Systems9.1.2 Types of Circulatory Systems9.2 Heart9.2.1 Anatomy of the Mammalian Heart9.2.2 Heart Functioning and Health9.2.3 Monitoring Heart Activity9.3 Blood Vessels9.3.1 Arteries and Veins: Essential Components of the Circulatory System9.3.2 Capillaries and Exchange Processes9.3.3 Vascular Pathways9.3.4 Blood Vessel Adaptations9.4 Blood9.4.1 Blood Components9.4.2 Blood Cell Identification9.4.3 Blood Clotting Process9.4.4 Immune Functions of Blood10. Diseases and Immunity10.1 Diseases and Immunity10.1.1 Pathogens and Transmissible Diseases10.1.2 Body Defences Against Pathogens10.1.3 Preventing Disease Spread10.1.4 Active and Passive Immunity10.1.5 Antibody-Antigen Interaction10.1.6 Vaccination Process and Importance10.1.7 Cholera: A Case Study10. Diseases and Immunity10.1 Diseases and Immunity10.1.1 Pathogens and Transmissible Diseases10.1.2 Body Defences Against Pathogens10.1.3 Preventing Disease Spread10.1.4 Active and Passive Immunity10.1.5 Antibody-Antigen Interaction10.1.6 Vaccination Process and Importance10.1.7 Cholera: A Case Study11. Gas Exchange in HumansPremium11.1 Gas Exchange Surfaces11.1.1 Characteristics of Gas Exchange Surfaces11.1.2 Anatomy of the Breathing System11.2 Composition of Air11.2.1 Investigating Air Composition11.2.2 Understanding Air Composition11.3 Breathing and Physical Activity11.3.1 Breathing and Physical Activity: Effects of Physical Activity on Breathing11.3.2 Link Between Activity and Respiration11.4 Respiratory System Protection11.4.1 Respiratory System Protection: Structure and Function of Intercostal Muscles11.4.2 Respiratory System Protection: Protective Mechanisms in the Breathing System11. Gas Exchange in HumansPremium11.1 Gas Exchange Surfaces11.1.1 Characteristics of Gas Exchange Surfaces11.1.2 Anatomy of the Breathing System11.2 Composition of Air11.2.1 Investigating Air Composition11.2.2 Understanding Air Composition11.3 Breathing and Physical Activity11.3.1 Breathing and Physical Activity: Effects of Physical Activity on Breathing11.3.2 Link Between Activity and Respiration11.4 Respiratory System Protection11.4.1 Respiratory System Protection: Structure and Function of Intercostal Muscles11.4.2 Respiratory System Protection: Protective Mechanisms in the Breathing System12. RespirationPremium12.1 Energy Uses in Organisms12.1.1 Uses of Energy12.1.2 Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast12.2 Aerobic Respiration12.2.1 Process of Aerobic Respiration12.2.2 Equations for Aerobic Respiration12.3 Anaerobic Respiration12.3.1 Anaerobic Respiration in Cells12.3.2 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast and Muscles12.3.3 Balanced Equation for Yeast Respiration12.3.4 Oxygen Debt and Recovery12. RespirationPremium12.1 Energy Uses in Organisms12.1.1 Uses of Energy12.1.2 Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast12.2 Aerobic Respiration12.2.1 Process of Aerobic Respiration12.2.2 Equations for Aerobic Respiration12.3 Anaerobic Respiration12.3.1 Anaerobic Respiration in Cells12.3.2 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast and Muscles12.3.3 Balanced Equation for Yeast Respiration12.3.4 Oxygen Debt and Recovery13. Excretion in HumansPremium13.1 Organs of Excretion13.1.1 Excretion through Lungs13.1.2 Kidney Functions13.1.3 Structure of the Kidney13.2 The Nephron and Urine Formation13.2.1 Structure of the Kidney13.3 Liver and Excretion13.3.1 Role of the Liver in Protein Assimilation13.3.2 Deamination and Urea Formation13.3.3 Importance of Excretion in Human Body13. Excretion in HumansPremium13.1 Organs of Excretion13.1.1 Excretion through Lungs13.1.2 Kidney Functions13.1.3 Structure of the Kidney13.2 The Nephron and Urine Formation13.2.1 Structure of the Kidney13.3 Liver and Excretion13.3.1 Role of the Liver in Protein Assimilation13.3.2 Deamination and Urea Formation13.3.3 Importance of Excretion in Human Body14. Coordination and ResponsePremium14.1 Nervous System14.1.1 Neurones and Impulse Transmission14.1.2 Structure and Function of Neurones14.1.3 Reflex Arcs and Actions14.1.4 Synapses in the Nervous System14.2 Sense Organs14.2.1 Function of Sense Organs14.2.2 Pupil Reflex and Accommodation in the Eye14.2.3 Rods and Cones in the Retina14.3 Hormones14.3.1 Hormones and their Functions14.3.2 Adrenaline and Fight or Flight14.3.3 Comparison of Nervous and Hormonal Control14.4 Homeostasis14.4.1 Concept of Homeostasis14.4.2 Skin and Temperature Regulation14.4.3 Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes14.5 Tropic Responses in Plants14.5.1 Tropic Responses in Plants14.5.2 Auxin and Plant Growth14. Coordination and ResponsePremium14.1 Nervous System14.1.1 Neurones and Impulse Transmission14.1.2 Structure and Function of Neurones14.1.3 Reflex Arcs and Actions14.1.4 Synapses in the Nervous System14.2 Sense Organs14.2.1 Function of Sense Organs14.2.2 Pupil Reflex and Accommodation in the Eye14.2.3 Rods and Cones in the Retina14.3 Hormones14.3.1 Hormones and their Functions14.3.2 Adrenaline and Fight or Flight14.3.3 Comparison of Nervous and Hormonal Control14.4 Homeostasis14.4.1 Concept of Homeostasis14.4.2 Skin and Temperature Regulation14.4.3 Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes14.5 Tropic Responses in Plants14.5.1 Tropic Responses in Plants14.5.2 Auxin and Plant Growth15. DrugsPremium15.1 Understanding Drugs15.1.1 Understanding Drugs: Definition and Scope15.2 Antibiotics15.2.1 Use and Effectiveness of Antibiotics15.2.2 Antibiotic Resistance15.2.3 Preventing Antibiotic Resistance15. DrugsPremium15.1 Understanding Drugs15.1.1 Understanding Drugs: Definition and Scope15.2 Antibiotics15.2.1 Use and Effectiveness of Antibiotics15.2.2 Antibiotic Resistance15.2.3 Preventing Antibiotic Resistance16. 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ReproductionPremium16.1 Asexual Reproduction16.1.1 Asexual Reproduction: Definition and Examples16.1.2 Genetic Implications of Asexual Reproduction16.1.3 Ecological and Agricultural Impact of Asexual Reproduction16.2 Sexual Reproduction16.2.1 Sexual Reproduction: The Fundamental Process16.2.2 Genetic Diversity in Sexual Reproduction16.2.3 Fertilisation Process in Sexual Reproduction16.3 Sexual Reproduction in Plants16.3.1 Sexual Reproduction in Plants: Floral Structures16.3.2 Pollination Strategies in Plants16.3.3 Fertilization and Seed Formation in Plants16.3.4 Germination Factors in Seed Development16.4 Sexual Reproduction in Humans16.4.1 Anatomy of Reproductive Systems in Humans16.4.2 Gametogenesis in Humans16.4.3 Sexual Reproduction in Humans: Fertilization and Early Development16.4.4 Pregnancy and Fetal Development16.5 Hormonal Regulation in Humans16.5.1 Hormonal Changes During Puberty16.5.2 Hormonal Control of Reproduction16.5.3 Hormonal Changes in Pregnancy 16.6 Sexually Transmitted Infections16.6.1 Nature and Impact of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)16.6.2 HIV/AIDS16.6.3 Prevention and Control of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)17. InheritancePremium17.1 Chromosomes, Genes, and Proteins17.1.1 Nature of Chromosomes and Genes17.1.2 Alleles and Sex Determination17.1.3 DNA and Protein Synthesis17.1.4 Protein Synthesis Process17.2 Mitosis17.2.1 Process and Role of Mitosis17.2.2 Chromosome Replication and Separation17.2.3 Stem Cells: The Building Blocks of Life17.3 Meiosis17.3.1 Role of Meiosis in Gamete Production17.3.2 Meiosis as Reduction Division17.4 Monohybrid Inheritance17.4.1 Genotype: The Genetic Blueprint17.4.2 Homozygous and Heterozygous Alleles17.4.3 Dominant and Recessive Alleles in Monohybrid Inheritance17.4.4 Pedigree and Punnett Squares17.4.5 Test Crosses and Codominance17.4.6 Sex-Linked Characteristics17. InheritancePremium17.1 Chromosomes, Genes, and Proteins17.1.1 Nature of Chromosomes and Genes17.1.2 Alleles and Sex Determination17.1.3 DNA and Protein Synthesis17.1.4 Protein Synthesis Process17.2 Mitosis17.2.1 Process and Role of Mitosis17.2.2 Chromosome Replication and Separation17.2.3 Stem Cells: The Building Blocks of Life17.3 Meiosis17.3.1 Role of Meiosis in Gamete Production17.3.2 Meiosis as Reduction Division17.4 Monohybrid Inheritance17.4.1 Genotype: The Genetic Blueprint17.4.2 Homozygous and Heterozygous Alleles17.4.3 Dominant and Recessive Alleles in Monohybrid Inheritance17.4.4 Pedigree and Punnett Squares17.4.5 Test Crosses and Codominance17.4.6 Sex-Linked Characteristics18. 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Organisms and Their EnvironmentPremium19.1 Energy Flow19.1.1 Source of Energy19.1.2 Energy Transfer in Ecosystems19.2 Food Chains and Food Webs19.2.1 Food Chains and Energy Transfer19.2.2 Food Webs and Interconnectivity19.2.3 Pyramids of Numbers, Biomass, and Energy19.2.4 Human Impact on Food Chains and Webs19.2.5 Trophic Levels in Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids19.2.6 Energy Efficiency Across Trophic Levels19.3 Nutrient Cycles19.3.1 The Carbon Cycle19.3.2 The Nitrogen Cycle19.4 Populations19.4.1 Population Definition and Growth19.4.2 Community and Ecosystem Dynamics19.4.3 Sigmoid Population Growth Curve20. 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Biotechnology and Genetic ModificationPremium21.1 Bacteria in Biotechnology21.1.1 Bacteria in Biotechnology21.2 Biotechnology21.2.1 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast21.2.2 Pectinase in Fruit Juice Production21.2.3 Introduction to Biological Washing Powders21.2.4 Lactase and Lactose-Free Milk21.2.5 Large-Scale Production Using Fermenters21.3 Genetic Modification21.3.1 Concept of Genetic Modification21.3.2 Genetic Modification Process21.3.3 Examples of Genetic Modification21.3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of GM Crops
