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CIE A-Level Biology

Study Notes

1. Cell Structure (AS)

1.1.1 Slide Preparation Techniques 1.1.2 Biological Drawing Skills in Microscopy 1.1.3 Image Magnification and Measurement in Microscopy 1.1.4 Measurement Tools in Microscopy 1.1.5 The Microscope in Cell Studies: Resolution and Magnification

1.2.1 Eukaryotic Cell Organelles 1.2.2 Plant and Animal Cell Differences: A Comparative Analysis 1.2.3 ATP as Cellular Energy 1.2.4 Prokaryotic Cell Features 1.2.5 Virus Structure and Classification 1.2.6 Comparative Cell Structure Analysis

1.1.1 Slide Preparation Techniques 1.1.2 Biological Drawing Skills in Microscopy 1.1.3 Image Magnification and Measurement in Microscopy 1.1.4 Measurement Tools in Microscopy 1.1.5 The Microscope in Cell Studies: Resolution and Magnification

1.2.1 Eukaryotic Cell Organelles 1.2.2 Plant and Animal Cell Differences: A Comparative Analysis 1.2.3 ATP as Cellular Energy 1.2.4 Prokaryotic Cell Features 1.2.5 Virus Structure and Classification 1.2.6 Comparative Cell Structure Analysis

2. Biological Molecules (AS)

2.1.1 Testing for Biological Molecules 2.1.2 The Benedict's Test 2.1.3 Testing for Non-Reducing Sugars

2.2.1 Biological Molecules: Key Terms 2.2.2 Covalent Bonds in Polymers 2.2.3 Reducing & Non-Reducing Sugars: Detailed Study Notes 2.2.4 The Glycosidic Bond 2.2.5 Starch & Glycogen: Key Energy Storage Molecules 2.2.6 Cellulose 2.2.7 Triglycerides 2.2.8 Phospholipids: Structural Marvels in Cell Membranes

2.3.1 Amino Acids & the Peptide Bond 2.3.2 The Four Levels of Protein Structure 2.3.3 Protein Shape 2.3.4 Globular & Fibrous Proteins 2.3.5 Hemoglobin 2.3.6 Collagen

2.4.1 Water & the Hydrogen Bond 2.4.2 The Role of Water in Living Organisms

2.1.1 Testing for Biological Molecules 2.1.2 The Benedict's Test 2.1.3 Testing for Non-Reducing Sugars

2.2.1 Biological Molecules: Key Terms 2.2.2 Covalent Bonds in Polymers 2.2.3 Reducing & Non-Reducing Sugars: Detailed Study Notes 2.2.4 The Glycosidic Bond 2.2.5 Starch & Glycogen: Key Energy Storage Molecules 2.2.6 Cellulose 2.2.7 Triglycerides 2.2.8 Phospholipids: Structural Marvels in Cell Membranes

2.3.1 Amino Acids & the Peptide Bond 2.3.2 The Four Levels of Protein Structure 2.3.3 Protein Shape 2.3.4 Globular & Fibrous Proteins 2.3.5 Hemoglobin 2.3.6 Collagen

2.4.1 Water & the Hydrogen Bond 2.4.2 The Role of Water in Living Organisms

3. Enzymes (AS)

3.1.1 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts 3.1.2 Enzyme Action 3.1.3 How Enzymes Work 3.1.4 Measuring Enzyme Activity 3.1.5 Colorimetry in Enzyme Analysis

3.2.1 Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity 3.2.2 Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity 3.2.3 Enzyme Concentration on Reaction Rates 3.2.4 Substrate Concentration on Reaction Rates 3.2.5 Inhibitor Concentration on Enzyme Activity 3.2.6 Vmax and the Michaelis-Menten Constant 3.2.7 Types of Enzyme Inhibitors 3.2.8 Comparing Immobilised and Free Enzymes

3.1.1 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts 3.1.2 Enzyme Action 3.1.3 How Enzymes Work 3.1.4 Measuring Enzyme Activity 3.1.5 Colorimetry in Enzyme Analysis

3.2.1 Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity 3.2.2 Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity 3.2.3 Enzyme Concentration on Reaction Rates 3.2.4 Substrate Concentration on Reaction Rates 3.2.5 Inhibitor Concentration on Enzyme Activity 3.2.6 Vmax and the Michaelis-Menten Constant 3.2.7 Types of Enzyme Inhibitors 3.2.8 Comparing Immobilised and Free Enzymes

4. Cell Membranes & Transport (AS)

4.1.1 The Fluid Mosaic Model 4.1.2 Components of Cell Surface Membranes 4.1.3 The Cell Surface Membrane 4.1.4 Cell Signalling in the Fluid Mosaic Membrane

4.2.1 Diffusion 4.2.2 Osmosis 4.2.3 Active Transport in Cells 4.2.4 Endocytosis & Exocytosis in Cells 4.2.5 Investigating Transport Processes in Plants 4.2.6 Investigating Diffusion 4.2.7 Surface Area to Volume Ratios 4.2.8 Investigating Surface Area 4.2.9 Estimating Water Potential in Plants 4.2.10 Osmosis in Plant Cells 4.2.11 Osmosis in Animals 4.2.12 Comparing Osmosis in Plants and Animals

4.1.1 The Fluid Mosaic Model 4.1.2 Components of Cell Surface Membranes 4.1.3 The Cell Surface Membrane 4.1.4 Cell Signalling in the Fluid Mosaic Membrane

4.2.1 Diffusion 4.2.2 Osmosis 4.2.3 Active Transport in Cells 4.2.4 Endocytosis & Exocytosis in Cells 4.2.5 Investigating Transport Processes in Plants 4.2.6 Investigating Diffusion 4.2.7 Surface Area to Volume Ratios 4.2.8 Investigating Surface Area 4.2.9 Estimating Water Potential in Plants 4.2.10 Osmosis in Plant Cells 4.2.11 Osmosis in Animals 4.2.12 Comparing Osmosis in Plants and Animals

5. The Mitotic Cell Cycle (AS)

5.1.1 Chromosome Structure 5.1.2 Purpose and Process of Mitosis 5.1.3 Phases of the Cell Cycle 5.1.4 Significance of Telomeres 5.1.5 Stem Cells in Regeneration and Repair 5.1.6 Tumorigenesis

5.2.1 Chromosome Behaviour in Prophase 5.2.2 Metaphase Alignment in Mitosis 5.2.3 Anaphase Segregation in Mitosis 5.2.4 Telophase and Reformation of Nuclei 5.2.5 Cytokinesis in Plant and Animal Cells 5.2.6 Microscopy Techniques for Observing Mitosis 5.2.7 Mitotic Rate and Cancer

5.1.1 Chromosome Structure 5.1.2 Purpose and Process of Mitosis 5.1.3 Phases of the Cell Cycle 5.1.4 Significance of Telomeres 5.1.5 Stem Cells in Regeneration and Repair 5.1.6 Tumorigenesis

5.2.1 Chromosome Behaviour in Prophase 5.2.2 Metaphase Alignment in Mitosis 5.2.3 Anaphase Segregation in Mitosis 5.2.4 Telophase and Reformation of Nuclei 5.2.5 Cytokinesis in Plant and Animal Cells 5.2.6 Microscopy Techniques for Observing Mitosis 5.2.7 Mitotic Rate and Cancer

6. Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis (AS)
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6.1.1 Components of Nucleotides 6.1.2 Detailed DNA Architecture 6.1.3 Mechanism of DNA Replication 6.1.4 RNA Types and Structures

6.2.1 Gene to Polypeptide Pathway 6.2.2 Genetic Code and Codons 6.2.3 Transcription Process in Protein Synthesis 6.2.4 Translation Mechanics in Protein Synthesis 6.2.5 mRNA Processing and Splicing 6.2.6 DNA Template Strands 6.2.7 Mutation Consequences 6.2.8 Mutations and Disease

6.1.1 Components of Nucleotides 6.1.2 Detailed DNA Architecture 6.1.3 Mechanism of DNA Replication 6.1.4 RNA Types and Structures

6.2.1 Gene to Polypeptide Pathway 6.2.2 Genetic Code and Codons 6.2.3 Transcription Process in Protein Synthesis 6.2.4 Translation Mechanics in Protein Synthesis 6.2.5 mRNA Processing and Splicing 6.2.6 DNA Template Strands 6.2.7 Mutation Consequences 6.2.8 Mutations and Disease

7. Transport in Plants (AS)
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7.1.1 Plant Transverse Sections 7.1.2 Xylem and Phloem Distribution in Plants 7.1.3 Xylem Vessel Elements in Plants 7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube Elements & Companion Cells

7.2.1 Water & Mineral Ion Transport in Plants 7.2.2 Transpiration in Plants 7.2.3 Water & the Transpiration Pull 7.2.4 Xerophytic Plant Leaf Adaptations 7.2.5 Movement in the Phloem 7.2.6 The Sucrose Loading Mechanism in Plants 7.2.7 Phloem: Mass Flow

7.1.1 Plant Transverse Sections 7.1.2 Xylem and Phloem Distribution in Plants 7.1.3 Xylem Vessel Elements in Plants 7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube Elements & Companion Cells

7.2.1 Water & Mineral Ion Transport in Plants 7.2.2 Transpiration in Plants 7.2.3 Water & the Transpiration Pull 7.2.4 Xerophytic Plant Leaf Adaptations 7.2.5 Movement in the Phloem 7.2.6 The Sucrose Loading Mechanism in Plants 7.2.7 Phloem: Mass Flow

8. Transport in Mammals (AS)
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8.1.1 Overview of Mammalian Circulatory Systems 8.1.2 Anatomy of Major Blood Vessels 8.1.3 Histology of Blood Vessels 8.1.4 Comparative Structure and Function of Vessels 8.1.5 Blood Cellular Components 8.1.6 Role of Water in Mammalian Transport 8.1.7 Formation and Function of Tissue Fluid

8.2.1 Oxygen Transport Dynamics 8.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Transport and the Chloride Shift 8.2.3 Carbon Dioxide in Blood Plasma 8.2.4 Analysis of Oxygen-Hemoglobin Binding 8.2.5 Physiological Relevance of Oxygen Dissociation 8.2.6 Impact of the Bohr Effect

8.3.1 Detailed Heart Morphology 8.3.2 Comparative Anatomy of Atrial and Ventricular Walls 8.3.3 Phases and Regulation of the Cardiac Cycle 8.3.4 Electrical Conduction System of the Heart

8.1.1 Overview of Mammalian Circulatory Systems 8.1.2 Anatomy of Major Blood Vessels 8.1.3 Histology of Blood Vessels 8.1.4 Comparative Structure and Function of Vessels 8.1.5 Blood Cellular Components 8.1.6 Role of Water in Mammalian Transport 8.1.7 Formation and Function of Tissue Fluid

8.2.1 Oxygen Transport Dynamics 8.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Transport and the Chloride Shift 8.2.3 Carbon Dioxide in Blood Plasma 8.2.4 Analysis of Oxygen-Hemoglobin Binding 8.2.5 Physiological Relevance of Oxygen Dissociation 8.2.6 Impact of the Bohr Effect

8.3.1 Detailed Heart Morphology 8.3.2 Comparative Anatomy of Atrial and Ventricular Walls 8.3.3 Phases and Regulation of the Cardiac Cycle 8.3.4 Electrical Conduction System of the Heart

9. Gas Exchange (AS)
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9.1.1 Anatomy of the Human Gas Exchange System 9.1.2 Tissue Distribution and Function 9.1.3 Histological Identification in the Gas Exchange System 9.1.4 Microscopic Structure Analysis 9.1.5 Cellular and Molecular Functions 9.1.6 Alveolar Gas Exchange Dynamics 9.1.7 Physiological Adaptations for Gas Exchange

9.1.1 Anatomy of the Human Gas Exchange System 9.1.2 Tissue Distribution and Function 9.1.3 Histological Identification in the Gas Exchange System 9.1.4 Microscopic Structure Analysis 9.1.5 Cellular and Molecular Functions 9.1.6 Alveolar Gas Exchange Dynamics 9.1.7 Physiological Adaptations for Gas Exchange

10. Infectious Diseases (AS)
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10.1.1 Pathogens and Disease 10.1.2 Disease Causative Agents 10.1.3 Modes of Transmission 10.1.4 Multifaceted Approach to Prevention and Control

10.2.1 Mechanism of Penicillin 10.2.2 Addressing Antibiotic Resistance 10.2.3 Strategies to Combat Antibiotic Resistance

10.1.1 Pathogens and Disease 10.1.2 Disease Causative Agents 10.1.3 Modes of Transmission 10.1.4 Multifaceted Approach to Prevention and Control

10.2.1 Mechanism of Penicillin 10.2.2 Addressing Antibiotic Resistance 10.2.3 Strategies to Combat Antibiotic Resistance

11. Immunity (AS)
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11.1.1 The Phagocytic Action of Macrophages 11.1.2 Neutrophil Response to Infection 11.1.3 Antigen Diversity and Recognition 11.1.4 B-Lymphocyte Activation and Clonal Selection 11.1.5 T-Lymphocyte Mediated Immunity 11.1.6 Formation of Memory Cells

11.2.1 Antibody-Antigen Specificity 11.2.2 Antibody Roles in Immune Defense 11.2.3 Production Techniques for Monoclonal Antibodies 11.2.4 Clinical Applications of Monoclonal Antibodies 11.2.5 Vaccine-Induced Active Immunity 11.2.6 Passive Immunity and Immunoglobulins 11.2.7 Strategies for National Vaccination Programs 11.2.8 Herd Immunity and Community Health

11.1.1 The Phagocytic Action of Macrophages 11.1.2 Neutrophil Response to Infection 11.1.3 Antigen Diversity and Recognition 11.1.4 B-Lymphocyte Activation and Clonal Selection 11.1.5 T-Lymphocyte Mediated Immunity 11.1.6 Formation of Memory Cells

11.2.1 Antibody-Antigen Specificity 11.2.2 Antibody Roles in Immune Defense 11.2.3 Production Techniques for Monoclonal Antibodies 11.2.4 Clinical Applications of Monoclonal Antibodies 11.2.5 Vaccine-Induced Active Immunity 11.2.6 Passive Immunity and Immunoglobulins 11.2.7 Strategies for National Vaccination Programs 11.2.8 Herd Immunity and Community Health

12. Energy and Respiration (A Level)

12.1.1 The Need for Energy in Organisms 12.1.2 ATP as the Universal Energy Currency 12.1.3 Energy Values of Respiratory Substrates 12.1.4 Calculating and Understanding RQ 12.1.5 Practical Investigation of Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

12.2.1 Stages and Locations of Aerobic Respiration 12.2.2 Glycolysis Details 12.2.3 The Link Reaction 12.2.4 The Krebs Cycle 12.2.5 Role of NAD and FAD 12.2.6 Oxidative Phosphorylation 12.2.7 Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Animals 12.2.8 Investigating Effects of Temperature and Substrate Concentration 12.2.9 Mitochondrial Structure-Function Relationship 12.2.10 Adaptations of Rice in Anaerobic Conditions 12.2.11 Methodology for Respirometer Use in Measuring Respiration Rates

12.1.1 The Need for Energy in Organisms 12.1.2 ATP as the Universal Energy Currency 12.1.3 Energy Values of Respiratory Substrates 12.1.4 Calculating and Understanding RQ 12.1.5 Practical Investigation of Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

12.2.1 Stages and Locations of Aerobic Respiration 12.2.2 Glycolysis Details 12.2.3 The Link Reaction 12.2.4 The Krebs Cycle 12.2.5 Role of NAD and FAD 12.2.6 Oxidative Phosphorylation 12.2.7 Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Animals 12.2.8 Investigating Effects of Temperature and Substrate Concentration 12.2.9 Mitochondrial Structure-Function Relationship 12.2.10 Adaptations of Rice in Anaerobic Conditions 12.2.11 Methodology for Respirometer Use in Measuring Respiration Rates

13. Photosynthesis (A Level)

13.1.1 Chloroplast Structure and Function 13.1.2 Light-Dependent and Independent Stages of Photosynthesis 13.1.3 Thylakoids and Stroma in Photosynthesis 13.1.4 Chloroplast Pigments 13.1.5 Absorption and Action Spectra 13.1.6 Pigment Separation by Chromatography 13.1.7 Cyclic and Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation 13.1.8 The Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis

13.2.1 Limiting Factors in Photosynthesis 13.2.2 Effects of Limiting Factors 13.2.3 Rate of Photosynthesis with Redox Indicators 13.2.4 Photosynthesis in Aquatic Plants

13.1.1 Chloroplast Structure and Function 13.1.2 Light-Dependent and Independent Stages of Photosynthesis 13.1.3 Thylakoids and Stroma in Photosynthesis 13.1.4 Chloroplast Pigments 13.1.5 Absorption and Action Spectra 13.1.6 Pigment Separation by Chromatography 13.1.7 Cyclic and Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation 13.1.8 The Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis

13.2.1 Limiting Factors in Photosynthesis 13.2.2 Effects of Limiting Factors 13.2.3 Rate of Photosynthesis with Redox Indicators 13.2.4 Photosynthesis in Aquatic Plants

14. Homeostasis (A Level)

14.1.1 Definition of Homeostasis 14.1.2 Components of Homeostasis 14.1.3 Liver Functions in Homeostasis 14.1.4 Anatomy of the Human Kidney 14.1.5 Nephron Anatomy and Blood Supply 14.1.6 Urine Formation Mechanisms 14.1.7 Structure-Function Relationship in the Kidney 14.1.8 Osmoregulation and ADH Mechanism 14.1.9 Hormonal Regulation of Blood Glucose 14.1.10 Negative Feedback in Glucose Homeostasis 14.1.11 Glucose Monitoring Techniques

14.2.1 Stomatal Dynamics in Plants 14.2.2 Guard Cell Function 14.2.3 Abscisic Acid and Stomatal Closure

14.1.1 Definition of Homeostasis 14.1.2 Components of Homeostasis 14.1.3 Liver Functions in Homeostasis 14.1.4 Anatomy of the Human Kidney 14.1.5 Nephron Anatomy and Blood Supply 14.1.6 Urine Formation Mechanisms 14.1.7 Structure-Function Relationship in the Kidney 14.1.8 Osmoregulation and ADH Mechanism 14.1.9 Hormonal Regulation of Blood Glucose 14.1.10 Negative Feedback in Glucose Homeostasis 14.1.11 Glucose Monitoring Techniques

14.2.1 Stomatal Dynamics in Plants 14.2.2 Guard Cell Function 14.2.3 Abscisic Acid and Stomatal Closure

15. Control and Coordination (A Level)

15.1.1 The Endocrine System 15.1.2 The Nervous System and Homeostasis 15.1.3 Neurones 15.1.4 Sensory Receptor Cells 15.1.5 Sequence of Events Resulting in an Action Potential 15.1.6 Transmission of Nerve Impulses 15.1.7 Speed of Conduction of Impulses 15.1.8 The Refractory Period 15.1.9 Cholinergic Synapses 15.1.10 Stimulating Contraction in Striated Muscle 15.1.11 Ultrastructure of Striated Muscle 15.1.12 The Sliding Filament Model of Muscular Contraction

15.2.1 Electrical Communication in the Venus Flytrap 15.2.2 The Role of Auxin in Elongation Growth 15.2.3 The Role of Gibberellin in Germination of Barley

15.1.1 The Endocrine System 15.1.2 The Nervous System and Homeostasis 15.1.3 Neurones 15.1.4 Sensory Receptor Cells 15.1.5 Sequence of Events Resulting in an Action Potential 15.1.6 Transmission of Nerve Impulses 15.1.7 Speed of Conduction of Impulses 15.1.8 The Refractory Period 15.1.9 Cholinergic Synapses 15.1.10 Stimulating Contraction in Striated Muscle 15.1.11 Ultrastructure of Striated Muscle 15.1.12 The Sliding Filament Model of Muscular Contraction

15.2.1 Electrical Communication in the Venus Flytrap 15.2.2 The Role of Auxin in Elongation Growth 15.2.3 The Role of Gibberellin in Germination of Barley

16. Inheritance (A Level)
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16.1.1 Haploidy & Diploidy in Sexual Reproduction 16.1.2 Homologous Chromosomes 16.1.3 Meiosis in Animal and Plant Cells 16.1.4 Identifying the Stages of Meiosis 16.1.5 Meiosis: Sources of Genetic Variation

16.2.1 Key Terms in Genetics 16.2.2 Predicting Inheritance: Monohybrid Crosses 16.2.3 Predicting Inheritance: Dihybrid Crosses 16.2.4 Predicting Inheritance: Test Crosses 16.2.5 Predicting Inheritance: Chi-squared Test 16.2.6 Genes, Proteins & Phenotype 16.2.7 The Role of Gibberellin in Stem Elongation

16.3.1 Gene Control 16.3.2 Gene Control: Lac Operon 16.3.3 Gene Control: Transcription Factors

16.1.1 Haploidy & Diploidy in Sexual Reproduction 16.1.2 Homologous Chromosomes 16.1.3 Meiosis in Animal and Plant Cells 16.1.4 Identifying the Stages of Meiosis 16.1.5 Meiosis: Sources of Genetic Variation

16.2.1 Key Terms in Genetics 16.2.2 Predicting Inheritance: Monohybrid Crosses 16.2.3 Predicting Inheritance: Dihybrid Crosses 16.2.4 Predicting Inheritance: Test Crosses 16.2.5 Predicting Inheritance: Chi-squared Test 16.2.6 Genes, Proteins & Phenotype 16.2.7 The Role of Gibberellin in Stem Elongation

16.3.1 Gene Control 16.3.2 Gene Control: Lac Operon 16.3.3 Gene Control: Transcription Factors

17. Selection and Evolution (A Level)
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17.1.1 Phenotypic Variation Sources 17.1.2 Variation Categories in Biology 17.1.3 Genetic Basis for Variation 17.1.4 Application of Statistical Tests

17.2.1 Natural Selection Explained 17.2.2 Forces of Selection 17.2.3 Allele Frequency Influences 17.2.4 Antibiotic Resistance Case Study 17.2.5 Hardy–Weinberg Principle in Practice 17.2.6 Artificial Selection 17.2.7 Examples of Selective Breeding

17.3.1 Evolutionary Theory Overview 17.3.2 Molecular Evidence for Evolution 17.3.3 Speciation Processes

17.1.1 Phenotypic Variation Sources 17.1.2 Variation Categories in Biology 17.1.3 Genetic Basis for Variation 17.1.4 Application of Statistical Tests

17.2.1 Natural Selection Explained 17.2.2 Forces of Selection 17.2.3 Allele Frequency Influences 17.2.4 Antibiotic Resistance Case Study 17.2.5 Hardy–Weinberg Principle in Practice 17.2.6 Artificial Selection 17.2.7 Examples of Selective Breeding

17.3.1 Evolutionary Theory Overview 17.3.2 Molecular Evidence for Evolution 17.3.3 Speciation Processes

18. Classification, Biodiversity, and Conservation (A Level)
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18.1.1 Species Concepts 18.1.2 Domains of Life 18.1.3 Prokaryotic Differences 18.1.4 Eukarya Taxonomy 18.1.5 Kingdom Characteristics 18.1.6 Viral Classification Criteria

18.2.1 Ecosystem and Niche Definitions 18.2.2 Biodiversity Assessment Levels 18.2.3 Sampling Methods 18.2.4 Distribution and Abundance Techniques 18.2.5 Statistical Analysis for Biodiversity 18.2.6 Diversity Index Application

18.3.1 Causes of Extinction 18.3.2 Biodiversity Importance 18.3.3 Conservation Strategies 18.3.4 Reproductive Technologies 18.3.5 Management of Invasive Species 18.3.6 Conservation Organizations

18.1.1 Species Concepts 18.1.2 Domains of Life 18.1.3 Prokaryotic Differences 18.1.4 Eukarya Taxonomy 18.1.5 Kingdom Characteristics 18.1.6 Viral Classification Criteria

18.2.1 Ecosystem and Niche Definitions 18.2.2 Biodiversity Assessment Levels 18.2.3 Sampling Methods 18.2.4 Distribution and Abundance Techniques 18.2.5 Statistical Analysis for Biodiversity 18.2.6 Diversity Index Application

18.3.1 Causes of Extinction 18.3.2 Biodiversity Importance 18.3.3 Conservation Strategies 18.3.4 Reproductive Technologies 18.3.5 Management of Invasive Species 18.3.6 Conservation Organizations

19. Genetic Technology (A Level)
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19.1.1 Recombinant DNA 19.1.2 Genetic Engineering Processes 19.1.3 Gene Transfer Techniques 19.1.4 Role of Enzymes in Genetic Engineering 19.1.5 Promoter and Marker Genes 19.1.6 Gene Editing Technologies 19.1.7 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Mechanics 19.1.8 DNA Separation by Gel Electrophoresis 19.1.9 Microarray Applications in Genetic Studies 19.1.10 Bioinformatics and Databases

19.2.1 Recombinant Proteins in Disease Treatment 19.2.2 Benefits of Genetic Screening 19.2.3 Gene Therapy Techniques 19.2.4 Ethical and Social Issues in Genetic Technology

19.3.1 Genetic Improvements for Food Production 19.3.2 GMOs: Ethical and Social Debate

19.1.1 Recombinant DNA 19.1.2 Genetic Engineering Processes 19.1.3 Gene Transfer Techniques 19.1.4 Role of Enzymes in Genetic Engineering 19.1.5 Promoter and Marker Genes 19.1.6 Gene Editing Technologies 19.1.7 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Mechanics 19.1.8 DNA Separation by Gel Electrophoresis 19.1.9 Microarray Applications in Genetic Studies 19.1.10 Bioinformatics and Databases

19.2.1 Recombinant Proteins in Disease Treatment 19.2.2 Benefits of Genetic Screening 19.2.3 Gene Therapy Techniques 19.2.4 Ethical and Social Issues in Genetic Technology

19.3.1 Genetic Improvements for Food Production 19.3.2 GMOs: Ethical and Social Debate

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