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CIE A-Level Biology

Study Notes
1.1.1 Slide Preparation Techniques
1.1.2 Biological Drawing Skills in Microscopy
1.1.3 Image Magnification and Measurement in Microscopy
1.1.4 Measurement Tools in Microscopy
1.1.5 The Microscope in Cell Studies: Resolution and Magnification
1.2.1 Eukaryotic Cell Organelles
1.2.2 Plant and Animal Cell Differences: A Comparative Analysis
1.2.3 ATP as Cellular Energy
1.2.4 Prokaryotic Cell Features
1.2.5 Virus Structure and Classification
1.2.6 Comparative Cell Structure Analysis
2.1.1 Testing for Biological Molecules
2.1.2 The Benedict's Test
2.1.3 Testing for Non-Reducing Sugars
2.2.1 Biological Molecules: Key Terms
2.2.2 Covalent Bonds in Polymers
2.2.3 Reducing & Non-Reducing Sugars: Detailed Study Notes
2.2.4 The Glycosidic Bond
2.2.5 Starch & Glycogen: Key Energy Storage Molecules
2.2.6 Cellulose
2.2.7 Triglycerides
2.2.8 Phospholipids: Structural Marvels in Cell Membranes
2.3.1 Amino Acids & the Peptide Bond
2.3.2 The Four Levels of Protein Structure
2.3.3 Protein Shape
2.3.4 Globular & Fibrous Proteins
2.3.5 Hemoglobin
2.3.6 Collagen
2.4.1 Water & the Hydrogen Bond
2.4.2 The Role of Water in Living Organisms
3.1.1 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts
3.1.2 Enzyme Action
3.1.3 How Enzymes Work
3.1.4 Measuring Enzyme Activity
3.1.5 Colorimetry in Enzyme Analysis
3.2.1 Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity
3.2.2 Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity
3.2.3 Enzyme Concentration on Reaction Rates
3.2.4 Substrate Concentration on Reaction Rates
3.2.5 Inhibitor Concentration on Enzyme Activity
3.2.6 Vmax and the Michaelis-Menten Constant
3.2.7 Types of Enzyme Inhibitors
3.2.8 Comparing Immobilised and Free Enzymes
4.1.1 The Fluid Mosaic Model
4.1.2 Components of Cell Surface Membranes
4.1.3 The Cell Surface Membrane
4.1.4 Cell Signalling in the Fluid Mosaic Membrane
4.2.1 Diffusion
4.2.2 Osmosis
4.2.3 Active Transport in Cells
4.2.4 Endocytosis & Exocytosis in Cells
4.2.5 Investigating Transport Processes in Plants
4.2.6 Investigating Diffusion
4.2.7 Surface Area to Volume Ratios
4.2.8 Investigating Surface Area
4.2.9 Estimating Water Potential in Plants
4.2.10 Osmosis in Plant Cells
4.2.11 Osmosis in Animals
4.2.12 Comparing Osmosis in Plants and Animals
5.1.1 Chromosome Structure
5.1.2 Purpose and Process of Mitosis
5.1.3 Phases of the Cell Cycle
5.1.4 Significance of Telomeres
5.1.5 Stem Cells in Regeneration and Repair
5.1.6 Tumorigenesis
5.2.1 Chromosome Behaviour in Prophase
5.2.2 Metaphase Alignment in Mitosis
5.2.3 Anaphase Segregation in Mitosis
5.2.4 Telophase and Reformation of Nuclei
5.2.5 Cytokinesis in Plant and Animal Cells
5.2.6 Microscopy Techniques for Observing Mitosis
5.2.7 Mitotic Rate and Cancer
6.1.1 Components of Nucleotides
6.1.2 Detailed DNA Architecture
6.1.3 Mechanism of DNA Replication
6.1.4 RNA Types and Structures
6.2.1 Gene to Polypeptide Pathway
6.2.2 Genetic Code and Codons
6.2.3 Transcription Process in Protein Synthesis
6.2.4 Translation Mechanics in Protein Synthesis
6.2.5 mRNA Processing and Splicing
6.2.6 DNA Template Strands
6.2.7 Mutation Consequences
6.2.8 Mutations and Disease
7.1.1 Plant Transverse Sections
7.1.2 Xylem and Phloem Distribution in Plants
7.1.3 Xylem Vessel Elements in Plants
7.1.4 Phloem Sieve Tube Elements & Companion Cells
7.2.1 Water & Mineral Ion Transport in Plants
7.2.2 Transpiration in Plants
7.2.3 Water & the Transpiration Pull
7.2.4 Xerophytic Plant Leaf Adaptations
7.2.5 Movement in the Phloem
7.2.6 The Sucrose Loading Mechanism in Plants
7.2.7 Phloem: Mass Flow
8.1.1 Overview of Mammalian Circulatory Systems
8.1.2 Anatomy of Major Blood Vessels
8.1.3 Histology of Blood Vessels
8.1.4 Comparative Structure and Function of Vessels
8.1.5 Blood Cellular Components
8.1.6 Role of Water in Mammalian Transport
8.1.7 Formation and Function of Tissue Fluid
8.2.1 Oxygen Transport Dynamics
8.2.2 Carbon Dioxide Transport and the Chloride Shift
8.2.3 Carbon Dioxide in Blood Plasma
8.2.4 Analysis of Oxygen-Hemoglobin Binding
8.2.5 Physiological Relevance of Oxygen Dissociation
8.2.6 Impact of the Bohr Effect
8.3.1 Detailed Heart Morphology
8.3.2 Comparative Anatomy of Atrial and Ventricular Walls
8.3.3 Phases and Regulation of the Cardiac Cycle
8.3.4 Electrical Conduction System of the Heart
9.1.1 Anatomy of the Human Gas Exchange System
9.1.2 Tissue Distribution and Function
9.1.3 Histological Identification in the Gas Exchange System
9.1.4 Microscopic Structure Analysis
9.1.5 Cellular and Molecular Functions
9.1.6 Alveolar Gas Exchange Dynamics
9.1.7 Physiological Adaptations for Gas Exchange
10.1.1 Pathogens and Disease
10.1.2 Disease Causative Agents
10.1.3 Modes of Transmission
10.1.4 Multifaceted Approach to Prevention and Control
10.2.1 Mechanism of Penicillin
10.2.2 Addressing Antibiotic Resistance
10.2.3 Strategies to Combat Antibiotic Resistance
11.1.1 The Phagocytic Action of Macrophages
11.1.2 Neutrophil Response to Infection
11.1.3 Antigen Diversity and Recognition
11.1.4 B-Lymphocyte Activation and Clonal Selection
11.1.5 T-Lymphocyte Mediated Immunity
11.1.6 Formation of Memory Cells
11.2.1 Antibody-Antigen Specificity
11.2.2 Antibody Roles in Immune Defense
11.2.3 Production Techniques for Monoclonal Antibodies
11.2.4 Clinical Applications of Monoclonal Antibodies
11.2.5 Vaccine-Induced Active Immunity
11.2.6 Passive Immunity and Immunoglobulins
11.2.7 Strategies for National Vaccination Programs
11.2.8 Herd Immunity and Community Health
12.1.1 The Need for Energy in Organisms
12.1.2 ATP as the Universal Energy Currency
12.1.3 Energy Values of Respiratory Substrates
12.1.4 Calculating and Understanding RQ
12.1.5 Practical Investigation of Respiratory Quotient (RQ)
12.2.1 Stages and Locations of Aerobic Respiration
12.2.2 Glycolysis Details
12.2.3 The Link Reaction
12.2.4 The Krebs Cycle
12.2.5 Role of NAD and FAD
12.2.6 Oxidative Phosphorylation
12.2.7 Anaerobic Respiration in Plants and Animals
12.2.8 Investigating Effects of Temperature and Substrate Concentration
12.2.9 Mitochondrial Structure-Function Relationship
12.2.10 Adaptations of Rice in Anaerobic Conditions
12.2.11 Methodology for Respirometer Use in Measuring Respiration Rates
13.1.1 Chloroplast Structure and Function
13.1.2 Light-Dependent and Independent Stages of Photosynthesis
13.1.3 Thylakoids and Stroma in Photosynthesis
13.1.4 Chloroplast Pigments
13.1.5 Absorption and Action Spectra
13.1.6 Pigment Separation by Chromatography
13.1.7 Cyclic and Non-Cyclic Photophosphorylation
13.1.8 The Calvin Cycle in Photosynthesis
13.2.1 Limiting Factors in Photosynthesis
13.2.2 Effects of Limiting Factors
13.2.3 Rate of Photosynthesis with Redox Indicators
13.2.4 Photosynthesis in Aquatic Plants
14.1.1 Definition of Homeostasis
14.1.2 Components of Homeostasis
14.1.3 Liver Functions in Homeostasis
14.1.4 Anatomy of the Human Kidney
14.1.5 Nephron Anatomy and Blood Supply
14.1.6 Urine Formation Mechanisms
14.1.7 Structure-Function Relationship in the Kidney
14.1.8 Osmoregulation and ADH Mechanism
14.1.9 Hormonal Regulation of Blood Glucose
14.1.10 Negative Feedback in Glucose Homeostasis
14.1.11 Glucose Monitoring Techniques
14.2.1 Stomatal Dynamics in Plants
14.2.2 Guard Cell Function
14.2.3 Abscisic Acid and Stomatal Closure
15.1.1 The Endocrine System
15.1.2 The Nervous System and Homeostasis
15.1.3 Neurones
15.1.4 Sensory Receptor Cells
15.1.5 Sequence of Events Resulting in an Action Potential
15.1.6 Transmission of Nerve Impulses
15.1.7 Speed of Conduction of Impulses
15.1.8 The Refractory Period
15.1.9 Cholinergic Synapses
15.1.10 Stimulating Contraction in Striated Muscle
15.1.11 Ultrastructure of Striated Muscle
15.1.12 The Sliding Filament Model of Muscular Contraction
15.2.1 Electrical Communication in the Venus Flytrap
15.2.2 The Role of Auxin in Elongation Growth
15.2.3 The Role of Gibberellin in Germination of Barley
16.1.1 Haploidy & Diploidy in Sexual Reproduction
16.1.2 Homologous Chromosomes
16.1.3 Meiosis in Animal and Plant Cells
16.1.4 Identifying the Stages of Meiosis
16.1.5 Meiosis: Sources of Genetic Variation
16.2.1 Key Terms in Genetics
16.2.2 Predicting Inheritance: Monohybrid Crosses
16.2.3 Predicting Inheritance: Dihybrid Crosses
16.2.4 Predicting Inheritance: Test Crosses
16.2.5 Predicting Inheritance: Chi-squared Test
16.2.6 Genes, Proteins & Phenotype
16.2.7 The Role of Gibberellin in Stem Elongation
16.3.1 Gene Control
16.3.2 Gene Control: Lac Operon
16.3.3 Gene Control: Transcription Factors
17.1.1 Phenotypic Variation Sources
17.1.2 Variation Categories in Biology
17.1.3 Genetic Basis for Variation
17.1.4 Application of Statistical Tests
17.2.1 Natural Selection Explained
17.2.2 Forces of Selection
17.2.3 Allele Frequency Influences
17.2.4 Antibiotic Resistance Case Study
17.2.5 Hardy–Weinberg Principle in Practice
17.2.6 Artificial Selection
17.2.7 Examples of Selective Breeding
17.3.1 Evolutionary Theory Overview
17.3.2 Molecular Evidence for Evolution
17.3.3 Speciation Processes
18.1.1 Species Concepts
18.1.2 Domains of Life
18.1.3 Prokaryotic Differences
18.1.4 Eukarya Taxonomy
18.1.5 Kingdom Characteristics
18.1.6 Viral Classification Criteria
18.2.1 Ecosystem and Niche Definitions
18.2.2 Biodiversity Assessment Levels
18.2.3 Sampling Methods
18.2.4 Distribution and Abundance Techniques
18.2.5 Statistical Analysis for Biodiversity
18.2.6 Diversity Index Application
18.3.1 Causes of Extinction
18.3.2 Biodiversity Importance
18.3.3 Conservation Strategies
18.3.4 Reproductive Technologies
18.3.5 Management of Invasive Species
18.3.6 Conservation Organizations
19.1.1 Recombinant DNA
19.1.2 Genetic Engineering Processes
19.1.3 Gene Transfer Techniques
19.1.4 Role of Enzymes in Genetic Engineering
19.1.5 Promoter and Marker Genes
19.1.6 Gene Editing Technologies
19.1.7 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Mechanics
19.1.8 DNA Separation by Gel Electrophoresis
19.1.9 Microarray Applications in Genetic Studies
19.1.10 Bioinformatics and Databases
19.2.1 Recombinant Proteins in Disease Treatment
19.2.2 Benefits of Genetic Screening
19.2.3 Gene Therapy Techniques
19.2.4 Ethical and Social Issues in Genetic Technology
19.3.1 Genetic Improvements for Food Production
19.3.2 GMOs: Ethical and Social Debate

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