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AQA GCSE Biology

Study Notes

1. Cell biology

1.1.1 Essential Life Processes

1.2.1 Principles of Biological Classification 1.2.2 Species Concept and Nomenclature 1.2.3 Dichotomous Keys and Evolutionary Relationships

1.3.1 Kingdom Classification 1.3.2 Classification within Animal and Plant Kingdoms 1.3.3 Practical Classification and Viral Characteristics

1.4.1 Plant and Animal Cell Structure 1.4.2 Bacterial Cell Structure 1.4.3 Cell Structure Identification 1.4.4 Functions of Cell Structures 1.4.5 Cell Division 1.4.6 Specialised Cells and Their Functions 1.4.7 Levels of Organisation in Biology

1.5.1 Understanding Magnification in Biology 1.5.2 Calculating Magnification and Size 1.5.3 Conversion of Measurements

1.6.1 Fundamentals and Importance of Diffusion 1.6.2 Factors Affecting Diffusion

1.7.1 Process and Effects of Osmosis 1.7.2 Water Potential and Organismal Water Balance 1.7.3 Practical Investigations in Osmosis

1.8.1 Active Transport: Mechanism and Role 1.8.2 Protein Carriers in Active Transport

1.9.1 Composition of Biological Molecules 1.9.2 Formation of Large Molecules 1.9.3 Chemical Tests for Biological Molecules 1.9.4 Structure of DNA

1.10.1 Fundamentals of Enzymes: Catalysts and Enzymes 1.10.2 Enzyme Action and Specificity

1.11.1 Effects on Enzyme Activity: Temperature and Enzyme Activity 1.11.2 pH and Enzyme Activity

1.1.1 Essential Life Processes

1.2.1 Principles of Biological Classification 1.2.2 Species Concept and Nomenclature 1.2.3 Dichotomous Keys and Evolutionary Relationships

1.3.1 Kingdom Classification 1.3.2 Classification within Animal and Plant Kingdoms 1.3.3 Practical Classification and Viral Characteristics

1.4.1 Plant and Animal Cell Structure 1.4.2 Bacterial Cell Structure 1.4.3 Cell Structure Identification 1.4.4 Functions of Cell Structures 1.4.5 Cell Division 1.4.6 Specialised Cells and Their Functions 1.4.7 Levels of Organisation in Biology

1.5.1 Understanding Magnification in Biology 1.5.2 Calculating Magnification and Size 1.5.3 Conversion of Measurements

1.6.1 Fundamentals and Importance of Diffusion 1.6.2 Factors Affecting Diffusion

1.7.1 Process and Effects of Osmosis 1.7.2 Water Potential and Organismal Water Balance 1.7.3 Practical Investigations in Osmosis

1.8.1 Active Transport: Mechanism and Role 1.8.2 Protein Carriers in Active Transport

1.9.1 Composition of Biological Molecules 1.9.2 Formation of Large Molecules 1.9.3 Chemical Tests for Biological Molecules 1.9.4 Structure of DNA

1.10.1 Fundamentals of Enzymes: Catalysts and Enzymes 1.10.2 Enzyme Action and Specificity

1.11.1 Effects on Enzyme Activity: Temperature and Enzyme Activity 1.11.2 pH and Enzyme Activity

2. Organisation

2.1.1 Understanding a Balanced Diet 2.1.2 Deficiency Diseases

2.2.1 Structure of the Digestive System

2.3.1 Physical Digestion Process 2.3.2 Human Teeth and Digestion in Physical Digestion 2.3.3 Role of Bile in Fat Emulsification

2.4.1 Chemical Digestion Process 2.4.2 Enzymatic Functions in Digestion 2.4.3 Role of Hydrochloric Acid in the Digestive System

2.5.1 Absorption in the Small Intestine 2.5.2 Structure and Function of Villi in the Small Intestine

2.6.1 Functions of Xylem and Phloem 2.6.2 Structure and Location of Xylem and Phloem in Non-Woody Dicotyledonous Plants

2.7.1 Root Hair Cells 2.7.2 Water Pathway in Plants 2.7.3 Investigating Water Transport in Plants

2.8.1 Transpiration: The Vital Process in Plants 2.8.2 Factors Affecting Transpiration 2.8.3 Mechanism of Water Movement in Plants 2.8.4 Wilting Mechanism in Plants

2.9.1 Process of Translocation 2.9.2 Source-Sink Dynamics in Plants

2.10.1 Principles of Circulatory Systems 2.10.2 Types of Circulatory Systems

2.11.1 Anatomy of the Mammalian Heart 2.11.2 Heart Functioning and Health 2.11.3 Monitoring Heart Activity

2.12.1 Arteries and Veins: Essential Components of the Circulatory System 2.12.2 Capillaries and Exchange Processes 2.12.3 Vascular Pathways 2.12.4 Blood Vessel Adaptations

2.13.1 Blood Components 2.13.2 Blood Cell Identification 2.13.3 Blood Clotting Process 2.13.4 Immune Functions of Blood

2.14.1 Characteristics of Gas Exchange Surfaces 2.14.2 Anatomy of the Breathing System

2.15.1 Investigating Air Composition 2.15.2 Understanding Air Composition

2.16.1 Breathing and Physical Activity: Effects of Physical Activity on Breathing 2.16.2 Link Between Activity and Respiration

2.17.1 Respiratory System Protection: Structure and Function of Intercostal Muscles 2.17.2 Respiratory System Protection: Protective Mechanisms in the Breathing System

2.18.1 Excretion through Lungs 2.18.2 Kidney Functions 2.18.3 Structure of the Kidney

2.19.1 Structure of the Kidney

2.20.1 Role of the Liver in Protein Assimilation 2.20.2 Deamination and Urea Formation 2.20.3 Importance of Excretion in Human Body

2.1.1 Understanding a Balanced Diet 2.1.2 Deficiency Diseases

2.2.1 Structure of the Digestive System

2.3.1 Physical Digestion Process 2.3.2 Human Teeth and Digestion in Physical Digestion 2.3.3 Role of Bile in Fat Emulsification

2.4.1 Chemical Digestion Process 2.4.2 Enzymatic Functions in Digestion 2.4.3 Role of Hydrochloric Acid in the Digestive System

2.5.1 Absorption in the Small Intestine 2.5.2 Structure and Function of Villi in the Small Intestine

2.6.1 Functions of Xylem and Phloem 2.6.2 Structure and Location of Xylem and Phloem in Non-Woody Dicotyledonous Plants

2.7.1 Root Hair Cells 2.7.2 Water Pathway in Plants 2.7.3 Investigating Water Transport in Plants

2.8.1 Transpiration: The Vital Process in Plants 2.8.2 Factors Affecting Transpiration 2.8.3 Mechanism of Water Movement in Plants 2.8.4 Wilting Mechanism in Plants

2.9.1 Process of Translocation 2.9.2 Source-Sink Dynamics in Plants

2.10.1 Principles of Circulatory Systems 2.10.2 Types of Circulatory Systems

2.11.1 Anatomy of the Mammalian Heart 2.11.2 Heart Functioning and Health 2.11.3 Monitoring Heart Activity

2.12.1 Arteries and Veins: Essential Components of the Circulatory System 2.12.2 Capillaries and Exchange Processes 2.12.3 Vascular Pathways 2.12.4 Blood Vessel Adaptations

2.13.1 Blood Components 2.13.2 Blood Cell Identification 2.13.3 Blood Clotting Process 2.13.4 Immune Functions of Blood

2.14.1 Characteristics of Gas Exchange Surfaces 2.14.2 Anatomy of the Breathing System

2.15.1 Investigating Air Composition 2.15.2 Understanding Air Composition

2.16.1 Breathing and Physical Activity: Effects of Physical Activity on Breathing 2.16.2 Link Between Activity and Respiration

2.17.1 Respiratory System Protection: Structure and Function of Intercostal Muscles 2.17.2 Respiratory System Protection: Protective Mechanisms in the Breathing System

2.18.1 Excretion through Lungs 2.18.2 Kidney Functions 2.18.3 Structure of the Kidney

2.19.1 Structure of the Kidney

2.20.1 Role of the Liver in Protein Assimilation 2.20.2 Deamination and Urea Formation 2.20.3 Importance of Excretion in Human Body

3. Infection and response

3.1.1 Pathogens and Transmissible Diseases 3.1.2 Body Defences Against Pathogens 3.1.3 Preventing Disease Spread 3.1.4 Active and Passive Immunity 3.1.5 Antibody-Antigen Interaction 3.1.6 Vaccination Process and Importance 3.1.7 Cholera: A Case Study

3.2.1 Understanding Drugs: Definition and Scope

3.3.1 Use and Effectiveness of Antibiotics 3.3.2 Antibiotic Resistance 3.3.3 Preventing Antibiotic Resistance

3.4.1 Nature and Impact of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)3.4.2 HIV/AIDS 3.4.3 Prevention and Control of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

3.1.1 Pathogens and Transmissible Diseases 3.1.2 Body Defences Against Pathogens 3.1.3 Preventing Disease Spread 3.1.4 Active and Passive Immunity 3.1.5 Antibody-Antigen Interaction 3.1.6 Vaccination Process and Importance 3.1.7 Cholera: A Case Study

3.2.1 Understanding Drugs: Definition and Scope

3.3.1 Use and Effectiveness of Antibiotics 3.3.2 Antibiotic Resistance 3.3.3 Preventing Antibiotic Resistance

3.4.1 Nature and Impact of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)3.4.2 HIV/AIDS 3.4.3 Prevention and Control of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

4. Bioenergetics
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4.1.1 Fundamentals of Photosynthesis 4.1.2 Use and Storage of Carbohydrates in Photosynthesis 4.1.3 Essential Elements and Photosynthesis in Plants 4.1.4 Investigating Photosynthesis 4.1.5 Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis

4.2.1 Adaptations for Photosynthesis 4.2.2 Leaf Structures in Photosynthesis

4.3.1 Uses of Energy 4.3.2 Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast

4.4.1 Process of Aerobic Respiration 4.4.2 Equations for Aerobic Respiration

4.5.1 Anaerobic Respiration in Cells 4.5.2 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast and Muscles 4.5.3 Balanced Equation for Yeast Respiration 4.5.4 Oxygen Debt and Recovery

4.1.1 Fundamentals of Photosynthesis 4.1.2 Use and Storage of Carbohydrates in Photosynthesis 4.1.3 Essential Elements and Photosynthesis in Plants 4.1.4 Investigating Photosynthesis 4.1.5 Limiting Factors of Photosynthesis

4.2.1 Adaptations for Photosynthesis 4.2.2 Leaf Structures in Photosynthesis

4.3.1 Uses of Energy 4.3.2 Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast

4.4.1 Process of Aerobic Respiration 4.4.2 Equations for Aerobic Respiration

4.5.1 Anaerobic Respiration in Cells 4.5.2 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast and Muscles 4.5.3 Balanced Equation for Yeast Respiration 4.5.4 Oxygen Debt and Recovery

5. Homeostasis and response
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5.1.1 Neurones and Impulse Transmission 5.1.2 Structure and Function of Neurones 5.1.3 Reflex Arcs and Actions 5.1.4 Synapses in the Nervous System

5.2.1 Function of Sense Organs 5.2.2 Pupil Reflex and Accommodation in the Eye 5.2.3 Rods and Cones in the Retina

5.3.1 Hormones and their Functions 5.3.2 Adrenaline and Fight or Flight 5.3.3 Comparison of Nervous and Hormonal Control

5.4.1 Concept of Homeostasis 5.4.2 Skin and Temperature Regulation 5.4.3 Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes

5.5.1 Tropic Responses in Plants 5.5.2 Auxin and Plant Growth

5.6.1 Hormonal Changes During Puberty 5.6.2 Hormonal Control of Reproduction 5.6.3 Hormonal Changes in Pregnancy

5.1.1 Neurones and Impulse Transmission 5.1.2 Structure and Function of Neurones 5.1.3 Reflex Arcs and Actions 5.1.4 Synapses in the Nervous System

5.2.1 Function of Sense Organs 5.2.2 Pupil Reflex and Accommodation in the Eye 5.2.3 Rods and Cones in the Retina

5.3.1 Hormones and their Functions 5.3.2 Adrenaline and Fight or Flight 5.3.3 Comparison of Nervous and Hormonal Control

5.4.1 Concept of Homeostasis 5.4.2 Skin and Temperature Regulation 5.4.3 Treatment of Type 1 Diabetes

5.5.1 Tropic Responses in Plants 5.5.2 Auxin and Plant Growth

5.6.1 Hormonal Changes During Puberty 5.6.2 Hormonal Control of Reproduction 5.6.3 Hormonal Changes in Pregnancy

6. Inheritance, variation and evolution
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16.1.1 Asexual Reproduction: Definition and Examples 6.1.2 Genetic Implications of Asexual Reproduction 6.1.3 Ecological and Agricultural Impact of Asexual Reproduction

6.2.1 Sexual Reproduction: The Fundamental Process 6.2.2 Genetic Diversity in Sexual Reproduction 6.2.3 Fertilisation Process in Sexual Reproduction

6.3.1 Sexual Reproduction in Plants: Floral Structures 6.3.2 Pollination Strategies in Plants 6.3.3 Fertilization and Seed Formation in Plants 6.3.4 Germination Factors in Seed Development

6.4.1 Anatomy of Reproductive Systems in Humans 6.4.2 Gametogenesis in Humans 6.4.3 Sexual Reproduction in Humans: Fertilization and Early Development 6.4.4 Pregnancy and Fetal Development

6.5.1 Nature of Chromosomes and Genes 6.5.2 Alleles and Sex Determination 6.5.3 DNA and Protein Synthesis 6.5.4Protein Synthesis Process

6.6.1 Process and Role of Mitosis 6.6.2 Chromosome Replication and Separation 6.6.3 Stem Cells: The Building Blocks of Life

6.7.1 Role of Meiosis in Gamete Production 6.7.2 Meiosis as Reduction Division

6.8.1 Genotype: The Genetic Blueprint 6.8.2 Homozygous and Heterozygous Alleles 6.8.3 Dominant and Recessive Alleles in Monohybrid Inheritance 6.8.4 Pedigree and Punnett Squares 6.8.5 Test Crosses and Codominance 6.8.6 Sex-Linked Characteristics

6.9.1 Concept of Variation 6.9.2 Continuous and Discontinuous Variation 6.9.3 Investigating Variation 6.9.4 Mutation and New Alleles 6.9.5 Gene Mutation: A Key to Genetic Diversity 6.9.6 Sources of Genetic Variation

6.10.1 Adaptive Features of Organisms 6.10.2 Adaptations in Hydrophytes and Xerophytes

6.11.1 Natural Selection: Unraveling the Mechanism of Evolution 6.11.2 Selective Breeding in Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 6.11.3 Artificial vs Natural Selection 6.11.4 Adaptation as a Process in Natural Selection

6.12.1 Bacteria in Biotechnology

6.13.1 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast 6.13.2 Pectinase in Fruit Juice Production 6.13.3 Introduction to Biological Washing Powders 6.13.4 Lactase and Lactose-Free Milk 6.13.5 Large-Scale Production Using Fermenters

6.14.1 Concept of Genetic Modification 6.14.2 Genetic Modification Process 6.14.3 Examples of Genetic Modification 6.14.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of GM Crops

16.1.1 Asexual Reproduction: Definition and Examples 6.1.2 Genetic Implications of Asexual Reproduction 6.1.3 Ecological and Agricultural Impact of Asexual Reproduction

6.2.1 Sexual Reproduction: The Fundamental Process 6.2.2 Genetic Diversity in Sexual Reproduction 6.2.3 Fertilisation Process in Sexual Reproduction

6.3.1 Sexual Reproduction in Plants: Floral Structures 6.3.2 Pollination Strategies in Plants 6.3.3 Fertilization and Seed Formation in Plants 6.3.4 Germination Factors in Seed Development

6.4.1 Anatomy of Reproductive Systems in Humans 6.4.2 Gametogenesis in Humans 6.4.3 Sexual Reproduction in Humans: Fertilization and Early Development 6.4.4 Pregnancy and Fetal Development

6.5.1 Nature of Chromosomes and Genes 6.5.2 Alleles and Sex Determination 6.5.3 DNA and Protein Synthesis 6.5.4Protein Synthesis Process

6.6.1 Process and Role of Mitosis 6.6.2 Chromosome Replication and Separation 6.6.3 Stem Cells: The Building Blocks of Life

6.7.1 Role of Meiosis in Gamete Production 6.7.2 Meiosis as Reduction Division

6.8.1 Genotype: The Genetic Blueprint 6.8.2 Homozygous and Heterozygous Alleles 6.8.3 Dominant and Recessive Alleles in Monohybrid Inheritance 6.8.4 Pedigree and Punnett Squares 6.8.5 Test Crosses and Codominance 6.8.6 Sex-Linked Characteristics

6.9.1 Concept of Variation 6.9.2 Continuous and Discontinuous Variation 6.9.3 Investigating Variation 6.9.4 Mutation and New Alleles 6.9.5 Gene Mutation: A Key to Genetic Diversity 6.9.6 Sources of Genetic Variation

6.10.1 Adaptive Features of Organisms 6.10.2 Adaptations in Hydrophytes and Xerophytes

6.11.1 Natural Selection: Unraveling the Mechanism of Evolution 6.11.2 Selective Breeding in Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 6.11.3 Artificial vs Natural Selection 6.11.4 Adaptation as a Process in Natural Selection

6.12.1 Bacteria in Biotechnology

6.13.1 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast 6.13.2 Pectinase in Fruit Juice Production 6.13.3 Introduction to Biological Washing Powders 6.13.4 Lactase and Lactose-Free Milk 6.13.5 Large-Scale Production Using Fermenters

6.14.1 Concept of Genetic Modification 6.14.2 Genetic Modification Process 6.14.3 Examples of Genetic Modification 6.14.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of GM Crops

7. Ecology
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7.1.1 Source of Energy 7.1.2 Energy Transfer in Ecosystems

7.2.1 Food Chains and Energy Transfer 7.2.2 Food Webs and Interconnectivity 7.2.3 Pyramids of Numbers, Biomass, and Energy 7.2.4 Human Impact on Food Chains and Webs 7.2.5 Trophic Levels in Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids 7.2.6 Energy Efficiency Across Trophic Levels

7.3.1 The Carbon Cycle 7.3.2 The Nitrogen Cycle

7.4.1 Population Definition and Growth 7.4.2 Community and Ecosystem Dynamics 7.4.3 Sigmoid Population Growth Curve

7.5.1 Increasing Food Production 7.5.2 Monocultures in Agriculture: A Comprehensive Study 7.5.3 Intensive Livestock Production

7.6.1 Biodiversity and Habitat Destruction 7.6.2 Impacts on Food Webs and Chains 7.6.3 Deforestation Effects

7.7.1 Aquatic Ecosystem Pollution 7.7.2 Plastic Pollution: Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems 7.7.3 Air Pollution

7.8.1 Sustainable Resources in Conservation 7.8.2 Endangered Species 7.8.3 Conservation Programmes 7.8.4 Genetic Variation in Conservation 7.8.5 Artificial Reproductive Techniques in Captive Breeding Programmes

7.1.1 Source of Energy 7.1.2 Energy Transfer in Ecosystems

7.2.1 Food Chains and Energy Transfer 7.2.2 Food Webs and Interconnectivity 7.2.3 Pyramids of Numbers, Biomass, and Energy 7.2.4 Human Impact on Food Chains and Webs 7.2.5 Trophic Levels in Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids 7.2.6 Energy Efficiency Across Trophic Levels

7.3.1 The Carbon Cycle 7.3.2 The Nitrogen Cycle

7.4.1 Population Definition and Growth 7.4.2 Community and Ecosystem Dynamics 7.4.3 Sigmoid Population Growth Curve

7.5.1 Increasing Food Production 7.5.2 Monocultures in Agriculture: A Comprehensive Study 7.5.3 Intensive Livestock Production

7.6.1 Biodiversity and Habitat Destruction 7.6.2 Impacts on Food Webs and Chains 7.6.3 Deforestation Effects

7.7.1 Aquatic Ecosystem Pollution 7.7.2 Plastic Pollution: Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems 7.7.3 Air Pollution

7.8.1 Sustainable Resources in Conservation 7.8.2 Endangered Species 7.8.3 Conservation Programmes 7.8.4 Genetic Variation in Conservation 7.8.5 Artificial Reproductive Techniques in Captive Breeding Programmes

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