The aftermath of the Mexican Revolution brought forth a period of reconstruction, led by notable figures who sought to address the wounds of war and lay a foundation for a new, stable Mexico. The era from 1920 to 1940 was marked by significant political and social changes, as the country navigated through challenges of reform, opposition, and modernisation.
Leadership Under Álvaro Obregón (1920–1924)
Political and Economic Stabilisation
- Presidency goals: Obregón aimed to restore order and confidence in a nation battered by revolution, focusing on political pacification and economic recovery.
- Policy of reconciliation: Extended amnesty to former enemies to stabilise the political climate.
- US relations: Successfully negotiated the recognition of his government by the United States, which was critical for foreign investment and economic development.
Agrarian Reform
- Land distribution: Implemented modest land reforms to placate peasant demands, though these measures were often more symbolic than substantive in redistributing land.
- Rural tensions: Maintained a cautious approach to land reform to avoid alienating landowners and investors.
Labour Reforms
- Worker's rights: Enacted laws that protected workers and established frameworks for industrial relations, influenced by the Mexican Constitution of 1917.
Education and Culture
- Educational reforms: Overhauled the education system to reduce illiteracy and promote secular, nationalistic values, which helped unify the country.
Challenges and Opposition
- Rebellion and resistance: While Obregón had significant support, he also faced considerable resistance, notably from the Catholic Church and its followers, who opposed his secularising efforts.
Economic Policies
- Agricultural focus: Prioritised the recovery of the agricultural sector, essential for economic stability and growth.
- Foreign investment: Encouraged foreign (especially American) investment in Mexican oil and agriculture, which helped in modernising the sectors but also increased economic dependency.
Plutarco Elías Calles and the Maximato (1924–1934)
Calles’s Presidency
- Consolidation of power: Focused on consolidating the power of the central government and diminishing regional military powers.
- Education: Continued educational reforms initiated by Obregón, reinforcing secular education.
The Maximato
- Political influence: Controlled politics through a series of puppet presidents, a period known as the Maximato (1928–1934).
- Economic policy: Implemented measures to stabilise the Mexican economy, attempting to balance budgets and promote fiscal responsibility.
Economic and Infrastructural Development
- Modernisation efforts: Oversaw significant infrastructure projects, including road and railway construction, to facilitate trade and modernisation.
Reforms and Institutionalisation
- Agrarian and labour reforms: Pushed for land and labour reforms, albeit cautiously, to avoid antagonising powerful landowning and business interests.
Cultural Policies
- National identity: Promoted cultural policies that reinforced a sense of Mexican identity, distancing from European influences.
Opposition and End of the Maximato
- Resistance to authoritarianism: Calles faced resistance from various sectors of society, including the emerging middle classes and workers tired of authoritarian rule.
The Challenges Faced
Land and Freedom
- The ideal of "land and freedom" remained partially unfulfilled, with many peasants still landless and the promised fruits of the revolution not fully delivered.
The Role of the Military
- Ensuring the loyalty of the military and reducing its political influence was a continuous challenge, with periodic uprisings and coups attempts needing to be quelled.
Church-State Relations
- The state’s secularising efforts were met with fierce resistance from the Cristero War to the everyday defiance by religious individuals and groups.
Economic Dependency
- Dependency on the US for economic stability was a double-edged sword, bringing investment but also creating vulnerability to external economic shocks.
Assessment of Their Impact on Post-Revolutionary Mexico
Establishment of Political Institutions
- The formation of the PNR was a critical step in moving away from caudillismo (strongman politics) to a more institutional form of governance.
Education and Social Change
- The expansion of secular education under the Cultural Missions helped to reduce illiteracy and forge a national identity independent of religious influence.
Economic Foundations
- Efforts to stabilise the Mexican economy laid the groundwork for future growth, but the benefits were unevenly distributed across society.
Agrarian Reform
- Land distribution efforts created a rural constituency for the state, but comprehensive agrarian reform was not fully realised until later administrations.
Legacy
- The period set the stage for future leaders like Lázaro Cárdenas, who would push the revolutionary agenda further, particularly in terms of agrarian and labour reforms.
The reconstruction era under Obregón and Calles was foundational in shaping the trajectory of modern Mexico. Their administrations navigated through the complexities of post-revolutionary society, striving to stabilise and institutionalise a state that had emerged from a decade of profound upheaval. Their legacies are evident in the political, economic, and cultural fabrics of contemporary Mexico, reflecting the enduring impact of their leadership during the formative years of the post-revolutionary period. Understanding these dynamics is essential for grasping how Mexico evolved from a nation in turmoil to one seeking progress and modernity.
FAQ
The Cristero War significantly influenced the post-revolutionary Mexican government's approach to church-state relations. This conflict, which stemmed from stringent anti-clerical laws implemented as part of the 1917 Constitution, showcased the deep divisions within Mexican society regarding the role of the Catholic Church. In response to the armed uprising by Catholic groups, the government realised it needed to adopt a more measured approach to avoid further insurrection and loss of life. Consequently, the government began to negotiate and made concessions, such as allowing for limited religious expressions in public and relaxing some anti-clerical laws. This pragmatic approach demonstrated the government's recognition of the Church's enduring social influence and the necessity to balance revolutionary ideals with political stability.
The agrarian reforms implemented by post-revolutionary leaders were more conservative and methodical compared to the radical and sweeping changes envisaged by Emiliano Zapata. Zapata's vision, embodied in the Plan de Ayala, called for extensive land redistribution to create communal lands and ensure that land benefitted those who worked it. In contrast, post-revolutionary leaders such as Obregón and Calles initiated limited land distribution, mainly to stabilise the country and prevent further rebellion, rather than to fundamentally alter landownership patterns. Their reforms often involved the creation of ejidos, or communal lands, but these did not dismantle the large haciendas to the extent Zapata had desired. The post-revolutionary leaders were more focused on political pragmatism and the need to balance the demands of various social groups, including landowners and the peasantry.
The leadership of Obregón and Calles, with their efforts to create a centralised state and a more controlled political landscape, set the stage for Lázaro Cárdenas's presidency. Their establishment of the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) paved the way for political stability and continuity, which Cárdenas later transformed into the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), turning it into a vehicle for broader social reforms. Additionally, the modest agrarian and labour reforms of the 1920s introduced under Obregón and continued by Calles provided Cárdenas with a base upon which to expand. Cárdenas built on these efforts, implementing more extensive land redistribution and nationalising the oil industry, thereby fulfilling some of the original goals of the revolution that his predecessors had only partially addressed.
Education reforms in the post-revolutionary period were significant as they were aimed at reducing illiteracy and promoting a secular, nationalistic ideology to forge a coherent national identity. Post-revolutionary leaders understood that the education system could be an effective tool in advancing the revolution's ideals and diminishing the influence of conservative elements, such as the Catholic Church. The reforms initiated under Obregón and expanded under Calles and their successors prioritised the creation of a public school system that was accessible to the masses, including rural areas previously neglected. By focusing on secular education, the state sought to reduce the Church's influence over the populace and promote civic values aligned with the revolutionary government. These efforts were critical in shaping a new cultural and political landscape in Mexico.
The economic policies of post-revolutionary leaders, particularly during the 1920s and 1930s, were instrumental in advancing Mexico's industrialisation. These leaders recognised the importance of diversifying the economy beyond agriculture and were keen to promote industrial growth. They achieved this through a combination of direct and indirect measures, including inviting foreign investment, which brought in capital and technology crucial for industrial development. The state also invested in infrastructure, such as roads and electricity, that was essential for industrial operations. Moreover, the government provided incentives for industrial development, including tax benefits and establishing industrial zones. While industrialisation progressed, these efforts laid important groundwork; however, the country still remained largely agricultural with industrialisation becoming more pronounced in the subsequent decades.
Practice Questions
Álvaro Obregón's tenure was marked by pragmatic approaches to agrarian reform, intending to stabilise Mexico after the tumult of revolution. His policies had a moderate impact on the agricultural sector; while he initiated land distribution to assuage peasant discontent, these efforts were often cautious and limited in scope, designed more to pacify rural unrest rather than to completely overhaul the land ownership system. Consequently, the reforms did not significantly alter the agrarian structure but did contribute to short-term political stability. Obregón's pragmatic reforms laid the groundwork for more extensive changes in later years, balancing the immediate need for stability with the long-term revolutionary goals.
The Maximato period under Plutarco Elías Calles was pivotal in consolidating the power of the central government and diminishing the political influence of regional military leaders, thereby reducing the likelihood of regional rebellions. Calles' efforts during this era significantly advanced the institutionalisation of Mexican politics, with the creation of the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), which later became the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). This party dominated Mexican politics for much of the 20th century, indicating the long-lasting influence of Calles' legacy. His policies during the Maximato laid the foundations for a more stable, centralised state and marked a departure from the era of caudillos, though they did also entrench authoritarian tendencies in Mexican politics.
