The exploration of moral values' origins and nature stands at the core of ethical theory. It addresses profound questions about the universality, relativity, objectivity, and subjectivity of morality, offering a variety of perspectives that have shaped philosophical discourse for centuries.
Universality vs. Relativity of Moral Values
Moral values and their applicability across various societies and times have long been debated in philosophy.
The Case for Universality
- Platonic Idealism: Plato’s theory of Forms posits an objective realm where the Form of the Good exists, transcending time and space.
- Kantian Ethics: Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative suggests that moral imperatives are universally valid, derived from pure reason and necessary for all rational beings.
The Case for Relativity
- Protagorean Relativism: The sophist Protagoras argued that individuals are the judges of what is true for them, making morality relative to individual perspectives.
- Cultural Relativism: Anthropological studies indicate that moral codes vary between societies, and there is no objective standard to judge one set of morals as superior to another.
Natural vs. Cultural Sources of Morality
This section investigates whether moral values are inherent in human nature or constructed by societies.
Natural Sources of Morality
- Aristotelian Naturalism: Aristotle's virtue ethics suggests that moral virtues align with the natural function (telos) of human beings.
- Evolutionary Ethics: The evolutionary perspective posits that certain moral behaviours have been naturally selected because they enhance survival and reproductive success.
Cultural Sources of Morality
- Social Constructivism: The idea that moral values are constructs developed through consensus within social groups.
- Foucault on Power and Morality: Foucault's analysis of power relationships explores how societal norms and morals are shaped by those in power.
Subjective vs. Objective Morality
Do moral values exist independently of human minds or are they reliant upon personal beliefs and emotions?
Moral Subjectivism
- Hume’s Emotivism: David Hume famously argued that moral judgements are not derived from reason but from sentiment.
- Sartre’s Existentialism: Sartre maintained that individuals are condemned to be free, carrying the weight of forming their own values through choices.
Moral Objectivism
- Moral Realism: Moral realists argue that there are objective moral facts, which are true regardless of human opinion or sentiment.
- Platonic and Kantian Objectivism: Both Plato and Kant offer a framework for understanding morality as a realm of objective truth accessible through reason.
Ethical Objectivism Explored
The belief in absolute or universal moral principles can be further examined through the following frameworks.
Moral Absolutism
- Natural Law Theory: Rooted in the philosophy of Aquinas, natural law theory proposes that moral laws are universal and can be discerned through human reason.
- Human Rights as Moral Absolutes: The concept of inalienable human rights presents a modern framework for moral absolutism.
Moral Universalism
- Overlapping Consensus: Philosopher John Rawls's idea that a consensus on certain moral principles can be achieved despite different philosophical or religious beliefs.
Ethical Subjectivism Explored
Subjectivism can be parsed into individual and cultural dimensions, each with profound implications for ethical theory.
Individual Subjectivism
- Gilbert Harman's Moral Relativism: Harman suggests that moral judgments are made in relation to the individual's own moral framework, which may differ widely from others.
Cultural Subjectivism
- Cultural Relativism and Ethical Diversity: The observation that different cultures have different moral codes, with none being objectively superior.
Assessing Moral Disagreements
Understanding and addressing moral disagreements requires careful consideration of their nature.
Contexts of Disagreement
- Descriptive vs. Normative Relativism: Descriptive relativism simply observes moral diversity, while normative relativism argues that this diversity means that there is no objective moral truth.
Resolving Disagreements
- Ethical Pluralism: The recognition that there can be several equally plausible moral positions on a given issue.
Moral Values in Action
How moral values translate into ethical decision-making is key to understanding their role in human life.
Application of Morality
- Virtue Ethics and Moral Character: Virtue ethics focuses on the development of character traits that constitute a good life.
- Kant's Deontology: Kant's theory stresses the importance of duty and the intention behind actions rather than the consequences.
Moral Values and Law
- Legal Moralism vs. Legal Positivism: The debate between those who believe the law should reflect moral values and those who believe the law should be separate from moral concerns.
The Role of Reason and Emotion in Morality
The balance between reason and emotion in moral judgment has been a focal point of ethical theory.
Reason in Moral Judgement
- Kantian Rationalism: Kant argues for the primacy of reason in moral judgments, seeing emotions as potentially misleading.
Emotion in Moral Judgement
- Humean Sentimentalism: Contrary to Kant, Hume posits that reason is the slave of the passions, and emotions play a foundational role in moral decisions.
Nature and Language in Moral Discourse
The language we use in moral discourse is not merely communicative but also indicative of the nature of our moral thinking.
The Use of Ethical Terms
- Meta-Ethical Analysis: Studying the language of ethics to understand the underlying concepts.
- Ethical Naturalism vs. Non-Naturalism: The debate over whether moral terms can be equated with natural properties.
Moral Psychology
- Moral Cognition: Exploring how moral values are processed and understood in the brain.
FAQ
Meta-ethical analysis plays a crucial role in studying the origins and nature of moral values by investigating the meaning, reference, and implications of moral concepts. It delves into questions like whether moral statements express factual propositions or emotive reactions, and whether moral values exist independently of human beliefs. Meta-ethics examines the underlying assumptions about morality that inform ethical theories and helps to clarify the arguments for and against various claims about moral objectivity, universality, and the influence of culture and nature on ethics. By scrutinising these fundamental questions, meta-ethics provides the philosophical tools to critically engage with different ethical theories and their foundations.
Social constructivism challenges the natural basis of moral values by asserting that values are not discovered but created by societies. It argues that moral concepts do not exist independently of human societies and are instead the product of social interactions and collective human invention. According to this view, what is considered moral is determined by social agreements and can vary greatly between different cultures and historical periods. Social constructivism suggests that our morals are shaped by social norms, legal systems, religious teachings, and political ideologies, rather than by biological or natural laws. Therefore, moral values are seen as malleable and subject to change as societal views evolve.
Ethical theories approach moral dilemmas involving cultural and universal morals conflict in various ways. Universalist theories, like Kantian deontology, would advocate for adherence to universal moral principles that transcend cultural norms. In contrast, cultural relativist positions might suggest that the context of the culture should primarily influence moral decisions. Other theories, such as ethical pluralism, recognise the legitimacy of multiple moral perspectives and suggest that moral dilemmas require a nuanced approach that considers the strengths of different moral arguments. Virtue ethics, focusing on character rather than rules, may offer a middle ground, suggesting that a wise and virtuous agent would navigate such conflicts by considering both the cultural context and universal moral ideas.
Moral subjectivism, which suggests that moral values are based on individual or cultural beliefs, can lead to ethical nihilism if it is assumed that all moral claims are equally valid, thus implying that no moral claims are truly valid. This could suggest that moral values are meaningless or non-existent. Philosophers counter this by differentiating between 'strong' and 'weak' forms of subjectivism. Weak subjectivism allows for personal or cultural moral standards without negating the meaningfulness of moral discourse. Additionally, even within subjectivism, there can be internal consistency and logical frameworks that prevent it from collapsing into nihilism, such as the concept of 'ethical solipsism', where one's moral beliefs are consistently applied to oneself, thereby maintaining a coherent moral stance.
The evolutionary perspective posits that moral values have originated through the process of natural selection. It suggests that behaviours now regarded as morally good or altruistic conferred evolutionary advantages in terms of survival and reproduction. Traits like cooperation, fairness, and altruism helped our ancestors live in groups, which increased their chances of survival against predators and in resource acquisition. Over time, these behaviours became ingrained and have been socially reinforced as they contribute to the stability and cohesion of societies. This view argues that moral instincts are not the product of rational thought but are evolutionary adaptations.
Practice Questions
Moral values, when seen through cultural relativism, reveal a profound respect for the diversity of ethical systems and societal norms. This viewpoint acknowledges the varied contexts from which moral judgments arise, challenging the notion of universal moral principles. However, ethical objectivism's universal standards, like those proposed by Kant's categorical imperative, offer consistency and a solid foundation for international human rights. While cultural relativism enriches our understanding of morality's multifaceted nature, it may also impede the pursuit of universally applicable ethical norms crucial for global justice and harmony.
Kant posited that reason is the cornerstone of moral judgments, promoting a universal approach to ethics that transcends individual sentiment. His perspective suggests that rationality ensures fairness and consistency in ethical decision-making. On the contrary, Hume regarded emotion as fundamental, with reason serving passion. Emotions, for Hume, are the actual motivators behind our ethical choices, which reason alone cannot justify. Both thinkers highlight valuable aspects of human cognition: Kant draws attention to the need for a rational moral framework, while Hume emphasizes the inescapable human element in morality that stems from our emotional nature.
George studied undergraduate and masters degrees in Classics and Philosophy at Oxford, as well as spending time at Yale. He specialises in helping students with UK and US university applications, including Oxbridge and the Ivy League. He writes extensively on education including on schools, universities, and pedagogy.