In the 19th century, the geopolitical and strategic interests of the European powers were piqued by the decline of the Ottoman Empire, leading to the complex diplomatic conundrum known as the "Eastern Question".

The Genesis of the Eastern Question

The Eastern Question pertained to the fate of the Ottoman Empire’s territories and how the power vacuum would be filled following its inevitable decline. The question became significant due to the strategic importance of the empire's lands, which served as crossroads between Asia and Europe.

• It raised concerns about who would control the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, crucial maritime routes for Russia's navy and commerce.
• There were religious and cultural interests at stake, particularly for Russia and Britain, who positioned themselves as protectors of Orthodox and Anglican interests, respectively. This period also saw significant reforms in Ottoman society and contributions, aiming to modernise and strengthen the empire.

European Interests and Ambitions

Each major European power had distinct ambitions that fuelled their involvement in the Eastern Question:

• Russia: Aimed to extend its influence southwards, gain control of the Black Sea, and secure access to the Mediterranean.
• Britain: Focused on maintaining the balance of power in Europe and protecting its route to its Indian colony.
• France: Sought to extend its influence in the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa.
• Austria-Hungary: Desired to contain Slavic nationalism and maintain its own multi-ethnic empire's stability. The rise of Prussia and decline of Austria played a significant role in reshaping the region's power dynamics.

The Crimean War (1853–1856)

Origins and Outbreak

• The war was ignited over a dispute between France and Russia over the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, then under Ottoman control.
• Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities, prompting Ottoman declaration of war in 1853. This was a critical episode in the broader context of European diplomacy and the changing balance of power during the 19th century.

IB History Tutor Tip: Understanding the Eastern Question illuminates the intricate power play in 19th-century Europe, showcasing how geopolitical interests shape international relations and set the stage for future conflicts.

Key Battles

• Siege of Sevastopol: The primary base of Russia's Black Sea Fleet was under siege for nearly a year.
• Battle of Balaclava: Included the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade, illustrating the miscommunications typical of this war.

Diplomatic and Military Outcomes

• Treaty of Paris: Checked Russian expansion by neutralising the Black Sea, thus hindering its naval power.
• Highlighted the deficiencies in the Ottoman military structure and European war tactics.
• Led to a shift in the European balance of power and set the stage for later conflicts in the region.

19th-Century Crises in the Balkans

The Ottoman Empire's weakening grip on the Balkans sparked a series of crises and wars throughout the 19th century.

The Great Eastern Crisis (1875–1878)

• Began with the Herzegovina Uprising and the April Uprising in Bulgaria; the latter saw a brutal response from the Ottomans, which shocked Europe.
• The Berlin Memorandum of 1876, proposed by the Great Powers, was meant to enact reforms but was rejected by the Ottomans, leading to war with Russia. The era of reform in Tsarist Russia under Alexander II also influenced the dynamics of these conflicts.

Treaty of Berlin (1878)

• This treaty significantly reduced Ottoman holdings in the Balkans and confirmed the independence of several states.
• It represented a major setback for the empire, although it did manage to retain control over Eastern Rumelia and Macedonia.

Ottoman Responses to the Eastern Question

The Ottoman Empire engaged in a series of efforts to counter the threats posed by the Eastern Question.

Diplomatic Manoeuvres

• The Ottomans played the European powers against one another, exploiting their rivalries to maintain some degree of sovereignty.
• Sought to win favour by implementing reforms intended to protect Christian minorities, thus addressing one of Europe’s main concerns.

Military and Administrative Reforms

• The empire attempted to modernise its military through the adoption of Western technologies and strategies. These efforts can be compared to responses in later crises, such as the Abyssinian Crisis and the League of Nations' response.
• The Tanzimat reforms aimed to reorganise the administrative structure of the empire, modernising it in line with European states.

The Impact of Reforms

• The reforms had mixed success; while they modernised certain aspects of the state, they also created new tensions within the empire.
• Nationalist movements among various ethnic groups within the empire were partially spurred by these reforms.

IB Tutor Advice: For exam success, focus on the causes and consequences of the Eastern Question, particularly its impact on European diplomacy and the balance of power leading up to World War I.

Significance of the Eastern Question

The Eastern Question was more than a diplomatic challenge; it was symptomatic of the shifting dynamics of 19th-century international relations.

• It exemplified the interplay between declining empires and rising nationalisms, a recurring theme in European history.
• The attempts to address the Eastern Question without a major war were ultimately unsuccessful, setting the scene for the conflicts that led to World War I.
• The struggles of the Ottoman Empire during this period reflected the broader impact of modernisation and change in the era, as well as the difficulties traditional empires faced in adapting to a rapidly changing world.

Through a detailed study of the Eastern Question, students can gain insights into the complexities of 19th-century international politics, the processes of imperial decline, and the origins of modern-day conflicts in the Balkans and the Middle East. Understanding these historical dynamics is crucial for comprehending the contemporary political landscape and the historical context of current events. For further insights, you can explore the broader impact on European states and their policies, such as those during the era of reform under Alexander II.