The early 19th century was a period of significant upheaval for the Ottoman Empire, as it grappled with internal rebellions, the rise of nationalist movements, and challenges to its authority from within its own ranks. The once formidable empire faced a myriad of problems that threatened its cohesion and stability.

Greek War of Independence (1821–1830)

Prelude to Rebellion

• The rise of nationalism among the Christian population in the Balkans.
• The Phanariotes, influential Greek families in Constantinople, played a key role in fostering Greek national identity.

Sparks of Insurrection

• Sporadic uprisings began, inspired by the successful revolutions in the Americas and France.
• The Filiki Eteria, a secret society, was instrumental in organizing the revolution.

European Romanticism and Philhellenism

• The Greek struggle attracted widespread sympathy in Europe, partly due to the classical revival and romanticism of the time.
• Notable figures such as Lord Byron championed the Greek cause, further internationalising the conflict.

The Ottoman Response

• The Empire’s military response was initially effective but ultimately undermined by European intervention.
• Massacres, such as on the island of Chios, provoked international outrage and further support for the Greek cause.

Consequences of Independence

• The establishment of an independent Greek state in 1830, with the signing of the Treaty of Constantinople.
• The loss marked the first major shrinkage of Ottoman territory and set a precedent for the empire's disintegration.

Muhammad Ali’s Egypt

Ascent of a New Power

• Initially, an ally, Muhammad Ali Pasha, exploited the power vacuum in the wake of the Napoleonic invasions to establish himself as the ruler of Egypt.

Reforms in Egypt

• Introduced modern agricultural methods, increasing the wealth and resources available to his regime.
• Established state monopolies on key goods, directing the profits towards military modernisation.

Military Engagements

• His well-trained and equipped army successfully expanded his rule into Sudan and Syria.
• His navy became a formidable force in the Mediterranean.

The Empire Strikes Back

• The Ottoman-Egyptian conflict highlighted the empire’s military obsolescence in comparison to Muhammad Ali’s modernised forces.
• The subsequent Treaties of Kütahya and Hünkâr İskelesi temporarily halted Muhammad Ali’s advance but did not resolve the underlying tensions.

Shifts in Allegiance

• Britain, initially supportive of Muhammad Ali, shifted its stance, fearing his control over the eastern Mediterranean would threaten their interests.
• The European powers, through diplomatic pressure and military force, intervened to restore the balance of power in the region.

Aftermath and Legacy

• The settlement reduced Muhammad Ali’s territory to Egypt and parts of Sudan, with an autonomous administration under Ottoman suzerainty.
• His legacy persisted in the form of a modernised Egypt, which later played a significant role in the politics of the region.

Internal Challenges and Repercussions

Socio-economic Decline

• The empire faced a significant financial crisis, exacerbated by military expenditures and territorial losses.
• Agricultural decline and plague further impacted the economic stability and population health.

Administrative Decentralisation

• The central authority was challenged by the increasingly powerful local rulers, such as the Beys in Tunisia and the Deys in Algeria.
• The Janissaries, once the elite soldiers of the empire, became a destabilising force, resisting modernisation and reform.

Intellectual and Cultural Stagnation

• A lack of scientific and industrial progress compared to European nations hindered development.
• The Ulema, the religious elite, often opposed reforms, viewing them as a threat to traditional Islamic values.

Ethnic and Religious Tensions

• The empire’s diverse population often had conflicting interests, leading to sporadic outbreaks of violence.
• Non-Muslim communities, particularly in the Balkans and Armenia, sought greater autonomy or independence.

Military Challenges

• The Janissary corps' repeated insubordination and eventual abolition in 1826 during the Auspicious Incident showed the deep-rooted problems in military organisation.
• The need for a modern army was evident, leading to the establishment of the new, Western-style army, Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye.

Efforts to Counteract Decline

• The emergence of reformist sultans like Mahmud II, who sought to modernise the empire's institutions.
• Initial reforms were often met with resistance and had limited success due to entrenched interests and the empire's vast and diverse nature.

In conclusion, the Ottoman Empire's early 19th-century challenges were characterised by internal fractures, external pressures, and a changing global context. The era was a pivotal one, witnessing the empire's attempts to reassert its dwindling power while navigating the complexities of nationalism, modernisation, and international diplomacy. These issues were not merely temporary setbacks but signs of the empire's slow transformation and eventual disintegration. For the IB History student, these events offer valuable insights into the processes of imperial decline and the seeds of modern national identities.