The 1837 Rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada were pivotal events, stemming from widespread discontent with the colonial governance that would profoundly shape the future of Canadian politics.
Political and Economic Causes
- Political Dissatisfaction: The oligarchic rule of the Family Compact in Upper Canada and the Château Clique in Lower Canada provoked widespread anger amongst the reformists. These elites controlled the legislative councils and were seen as unresponsive to the needs of the population, particularly the growing middle class.
- Economic Distress: An economic recession, poor harvests, and an outdated seigneurial system in Lower Canada aggravated the common people. The colonial government's failure to provide relief and the perceived corruption among the ruling elite intensified calls for reform.
- Desire for Responsible Government: Many colonists sought a government that would be responsible to the elected assembly rather than to the appointed governor. This shift would ensure that policies reflected the populace’s needs and aspirations.
Social and Cultural Causes
- Ethnic and Cultural Tensions: Lower Canada's majority French-speaking population opposed the British colonial policies that seemed to threaten their culture and religion. English-speaking citizens in the region generally favoured the status quo, further exacerbating tensions.
- Class Antagonism: Economic hardship particularly affected the lower classes, leading to class-based antagonism against the wealthy elite. This division was especially acute in the urban centres where the gap between the working class and the elite was most evident.
Effects of the Rebellions
- Immediate Suppression and Reprisals: The British military quickly quelled the rebellions. Many participants were arrested; some were executed or transported to Australia, while others escaped to the United States.
- Political Awakening: The rebellions failed militarily but succeeded in raising awareness. They highlighted the need for reform and galvanised public opinion, setting the stage for future political changes.
The Durham Report and its Implications
The Earl of Durham's report of 1839 was a watershed in the development of Canadian governance, offering a blueprint for major reforms following the rebellions.
Main Recommendations of the Durham Report
- Union of Upper and Lower Canada: Durham's proposal aimed to unify Upper and Lower Canada, effectively assimilating the French-speaking population and resolving the political deadlock between the two colonies.
- Implementation of Responsible Government: The report’s call for responsible government proposed that the governor should follow the advice of ministers who had the support of the elected assembly, a radical shift from the previous governance system.
Implications of the Durham Report
- Political Reform: The Union Act of 1840 merged Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, setting the stage for the introduction of responsible government and eventually leading to the first responsible administration in 1848.
- Cultural Impact: The policy of assimilation recommended by Durham was met with resistance in French Canada, laying the groundwork for future linguistic and cultural struggles that would continue to define Canadian society.
Challenges to the Confederation and the British North America Act of 1867
In the three decades following the 1837 Rebellions, Canadian colonies faced numerous challenges on their path to Confederation, culminating in the British North America Act of 1867.
Economic Challenges
- Diverse Economies: The colonies had different economic bases; while some were agricultural, others were commercial or maritime. Reconciling these varied interests into a single economic policy for the Confederation was a contentious process.
- Railway Debts: The economic burden of railway construction was a significant concern, with many colonies worried about the central government assuming their debts and the potential for unequal treatment in the allocation of federal funds.
Political Challenges
- Representation by Population: The 'rep by pop' debate was fraught, with smaller colonies fearing domination by larger ones, particularly Canada West, which had the largest population and stood to gain the most from such an arrangement.
- Fear of Loss of Autonomy: Smaller colonies, especially Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland, were wary of a central government that might override their local authority and were reluctant to join the Confederation.
Defence and Foreign Policy Concerns
- Threat of American Expansion: Post-American Civil War, there was a heightened sense of urgency to unify for mutual defence against possible aggression from the United States, which had demonstrated its military might during the Civil War.
- Reciprocity Treaty: The end of this treaty with the US pushed the colonies towards unification, seeking economic stability and strength through a larger, collective market and customs union.
Cultural and Social Challenges
- Religious and Cultural Divergences: Negotiators had to carefully consider the cultural and religious differences between the Protestant-majority colonies and the predominantly Catholic French-speaking population in Canada East.
- Indigenous Peoples: The Confederation discussions largely overlooked the rights of Indigenous peoples, failing to consult or consider their governance systems, which would later result in ongoing legal and territorial disputes.
The British North America Act of 1867
- Foundation of Canada: This act legally sanctioned the creation of the Dominion of Canada, unifying three colonies with the promise of others joining later.
- Federal Structure: It defined the federal and provincial spheres of governance, balancing the need for a strong central government with provincial rights.
- Legal Precedents: It set a constitutional framework for Canada, although it left many questions unresolved, particularly concerning provincial powers, which would challenge Canadian courts and politicians for generations.
The British North America Act of 1867 marked the birth of Canada as a self-governing dominion. While it resolved many immediate issues, its passage was just the beginning of Canada's evolution into the nation it is today, with the Act providing a foundation for growth and the inevitable debates and discussions that would follow as the country matured and expanded.
FAQ
The American Civil War had a significant influence on the Confederation of Canada. Firstly, the fear of potential American expansionism post-war made the idea of a united defence more appealing to the British North American colonies. The war had shown the might of the American military, and there was a real concern that this power could be turned northward, especially given the Fenian raids of the 1860s. Secondly, the economic repercussions of the war for the colonies, including the disruption of trade, underscored the need for a larger, more integrated domestic market within British North America. These factors helped galvanise support for a union that would enhance economic stability and security for the colonies involved.
The seigneurial system played a significant role in the discontent that led to the Rebellions of 1837 in Lower Canada. This feudal land tenure system, inherited from French colonial rule, placed economic and social power in the hands of the seigneurs, or landlords, who leased land to tenants known as habitants. The habitants resented the dues and obligations they had to pay and fulfil, which they viewed as exploitative and a barrier to economic freedom and advancement. Moreover, the system was ill-adapted to the economic changes of the time, including the rise of a market economy and the agricultural crisis of the 1830s. Calls for the abolition of the seigneurial system became intertwined with the broader demand for political reform.
The British government’s response to the Durham Report was cautiously receptive. It accepted the proposal to unite Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada, with the Union Act of 1840. This move was intended to assimilate the French-speaking population and give the English-speaking majority more control. However, the British were more reticent about implementing responsible government. Although they did not fully endorse Durham’s call for full responsible government immediately, incremental reforms were made, which eventually led to the establishment of a de facto responsible government in the 1840s. This was a key step towards self-government, although it took several years and persistent pressure from the colonies for complete responsible government to materialise.
The economic grievances that precipitated the 1837 Rebellions were multifaceted. In Lower Canada, the seigneurial system—feudal landholdings and dues—was seen as archaic and burdensome, particularly by the emerging bourgeoisie and the habitants (tenant farmers). Additionally, a banking crisis and a lack of capital hindered economic development and aggravated the colonists, who felt the government was ineffectual in addressing these issues. In Upper Canada, the economic grievances centred around land distribution policies, which were viewed as corrupt and favouring the elite Family Compact. The Crown and Clergy reserves – large tracts of land set aside for the Anglican church and the Crown – restricted available land for settlement and economic expansion, fuelling resentment among other denominations and landowners.
Several colonies exhibited hesitancy towards joining the Confederation for a variety of reasons. For instance, colonies like Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland were concerned about the potential loss of their local autonomy and the dominance of more populous colonies like Canada West (Ontario). There were also economic apprehensions; some colonies were wary of inheriting the debt from others, particularly the debt incurred by Canada West and Canada East (Quebec) for their extensive railway projects. Moreover, the geographical isolation of some regions, such as Newfoundland, made political integration less attractive. Cultural differences, especially fears among French Canadians about being outnumbered within a wider Anglophone dominion, also contributed to the reluctance. These concerns needed to be addressed through various concessions and assurances to facilitate the eventual formation of the Confederation.
Practice Questions
The Durham Report astutely identified the central grievances that fuelled the 1837 Rebellions, particularly the issue of responsible government. Lord Durham recognised the colonial administration's oligarchic nature, which had alienated the reformist and French-Canadian populations, and his recommendations aimed to remedy this through the unification of Upper and Lower Canada and the establishment of a government accountable to an elected assembly. However, while the report addressed political concerns, it inadequately considered the cultural and economic factors contributing to unrest, such as the protection of French-Canadian culture and the economic distress that had partly caused the rebellions.
The 1837 Rebellions had a profound impact on the Confederation process, acting as a catalyst for change. They exposed the flaws of the existing political structures and highlighted the need for a new, cooperative approach to governance. The subsequent push for responsible government and the Durham Report's recommendations laid the groundwork for the Confederation. Additionally, the rebellions underscored the necessity of a united front against external threats, particularly from the United States, and encouraged the colonies to consider unification as a means of strengthening defence. Ultimately, the rebellions emphasised the importance of a political union, influencing the shape of the British North America Act of 1867.
