The apartheid regime in South Africa faced widespread international condemnation that significantly impacted its sustainability and eventual dismantlement. This international opposition manifested in various forms, from UN resolutions and economic sanctions to cultural boycotts and foreign government policies, ultimately exerting immense pressure on South Africa.
Origins and Nature of International Opposition
- Role of the United Nations (UN): The UN's opposition to apartheid was consistent and increasingly forceful over time.
- From the early 1960s, the General Assembly began adopting resolutions calling for sanctions against South Africa.
- The 1973 International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid criminalised apartheid policies under international law.
- Security Council resolutions, notably Resolution 418, implemented a mandatory arms embargo, restricting military sales to South Africa.
- Impact of the Commonwealth: The Commonwealth of Nations was particularly active in opposing apartheid.
- Commonwealth member states regularly debated South Africa’s racial policies, leading to various forms of protest and pressure, including sporting and economic sanctions.
- Influence of Non-Aligned Movement: As a collective of states not formally aligned with any major power bloc, the Non-Aligned Movement provided a platform for concerted Third World action against apartheid.
The Role of Foreign Governments
- Western Governments' Initial Reluctance: Countries like Britain and the United States initially had a complex relationship with South Africa due to strategic Cold War alliances and significant economic ties.
- Over time, public and political attitudes shifted, especially during the Reagan and Thatcher administrations, which faced strong domestic opposition to their relatively 'soft' approach to the apartheid regime.
- Contributions of African and Asian Countries: Newly independent African states, such as Ghana and Nigeria, as well as Asian nations, played a robust role in denouncing apartheid on the international stage and in supporting the ANC both diplomatically and materially.
- Scandinavian Support: Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland provided consistent moral and financial support for anti-apartheid activities and were among the first to limit economic relations with South Africa.
Economic Boycotts and Sanctions
- Trade Embargoes: Comprehensive trade restrictions were called for by various international groups but were met with mixed success due to economic interests and political hesitations among the international community.
- Products such as South African wine, fruit, and minerals became targets for international boycotts.
- Disinvestment Campaigns: Pressure on international companies to divest (withdraw investments) from South Africa grew significantly during the 1980s.
- Campaigns focused on companies with significant operations in South Africa, urging them to leave or face consumer boycotts.
- University of California’s divestment: The decision by such a significant institution to divest in 1986 was influential, resulting in a cascade of similar actions by other educational and financial institutions.
- Cultural and Sporting Boycotts: Cultural and sporting boycotts served as a potent tool to isolate South Africa and bring international attention to apartheid.
- The cultural boycott involved artists and musicians who refused to perform in South Africa, while the sporting boycott led to South Africa's exclusion from international events like the Olympics.
Impact of the Economic Boycott on South Africa
- Economic Strain: The implementation of sanctions by major trading partners and the subsequent reduction in foreign investment resulted in a shrinking economy, capital flight, and a weakening currency.
- South Africa became increasingly unable to import oil, technology, and other critical resources, leading to economic crisis conditions by the late 1980s.
- Pressure on Business and Government: South African businesses faced declining profits due to boycotts and began to pressure the government for political change to end their international isolation.
- Social Repercussions: Economic sanctions exacerbated the already rising unemployment and inflation rates, which hit the black population particularly hard, leading to intensified domestic opposition to apartheid policies.
International Campaigns and Public Opinion
- Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM): The AAM in Britain and similar movements elsewhere saw mass public demonstrations, lobbying efforts, and widespread calls for the release of Nelson Mandela and other political prisoners.
- Free Nelson Mandela Concerts: These events raised public awareness and kept apartheid in the global public discourse.
- Divestment Movements: A powerful form of protest in the United States was the divestment movement, which saw local governments, churches, and other institutions pull investments from companies doing business in South Africa.
- Grassroots Activism: Localised anti-apartheid activities, such as refusing to buy South African goods and protesting against companies with South African ties, contributed significantly to the pressure on the apartheid government.
Challenges and Criticisms of International Opposition
- Inconsistent Application of Sanctions: Enforcement of sanctions often varied, with some countries and businesses seeking loopholes to continue profitable relations with South Africa.
- Economic Versus Human Rights Priorities: The reluctance of major powers to impose full economic sanctions highlighted the tension between economic self-interest and the promotion of human rights.
- Debate on the Effectiveness of Sanctions: The argument persists over whether sanctions alone could have led to the end of apartheid, considering the multiple internal and external pressures facing South Africa at the time.
The Path to Reforms and the End of Apartheid
- De Klerk’s Reforms: Faced with severe economic and diplomatic isolation, President FW de Klerk took the historic steps that began the process of unravelling apartheid.
- His reforms were driven by the need to restore economic growth and normalise international relations.
- Transition to Democracy: International pressure created a conducive environment for the peaceful negotiation of South Africa's political future, culminating in the 1994 democratic elections.
This comprehensive international opposition not only delegitimised apartheid on the world stage but also had tangible impacts on the South African economy and its political landscape. By understanding the multifaceted nature of this opposition, students can appreciate the global efforts to dismantle an oppressive system and restore human rights and dignity in South Africa.
FAQ
Academic boycotts against South African educational institutions during apartheid were significant. They involved the refusal of international academics to participate in conferences in South Africa, a cessation of the exchange of academic materials, and a ban on collaborative research with South African institutions. These boycotts aimed to delegitimise the intellectual underpinnings of apartheid and to isolate South African academics who were seen as complicit in the system. The academic boycotts affected research, funding, and the international standing of South African institutions, highlighting the moral imperative for educational institutions worldwide to sever ties with a system that denied basic human rights based on race.
Apartheid had a significant impact on South Africa's participation in international sports, leading to the country's isolation and exclusion from global events. The nation was barred from the Olympic Games for 32 years, from 1964 to 1992, and faced exclusion from international cricket and rugby. This sports boycott was part of the wider cultural and economic sanctions aimed at pressuring the South African government to dismantle apartheid. The lack of international competition stigmatised South African sports and highlighted the pariah status of the nation under apartheid, underscoring the regime's incompatibility with international norms of equality and fair play.
Religious organisations were instrumental in the international opposition to apartheid by providing a moral framework for the anti-apartheid movement and actively campaigning for the end of racial segregation. Many religious leaders and organisations, across a spectrum of faiths, condemned apartheid as a sin and a violation of human rights. They organised and participated in protests, used their platforms to inform and mobilise congregations, and in some cases, applied economic pressure through divestment of church funds from companies operating in South Africa. This religious activism played a vital role in broadening the base of opposition to apartheid, contributing to the international pressure that led to its collapse.
Individual activists played crucial roles in galvanising public opinion and influencing policy against apartheid internationally. They organised rallies, led consumer boycott campaigns, and lobbied politicians to take a stronger stand against the South African government. These individuals, often part of larger anti-apartheid organisations, succeeded in raising awareness about the issues within South Africa and mobilised civil society in various nations to demand action from their respective governments. Notably, figures such as Archbishop Desmond Tutu toured internationally, drawing attention to the injustices of apartheid and securing foreign support for the movement. Their contributions were essential in maintaining a high level of international pressure on the apartheid regime.
Cultural boycotts were a profound aspect of the international opposition to apartheid, serving to isolate South Africa socially and artistically. They made a strong symbolic statement, demonstrating the international community's refusal to normalise or accept South African society under apartheid. By preventing cultural exchange in areas like music, theatre, and literature, these boycotts significantly lowered the global cultural profile of South Africa. High-profile artists and musicians refused to perform in the country, which not only deprived South Africans of international cultural experiences but also drew attention to the oppressive nature of apartheid, keeping it in the public eye and generating further international support for the anti-apartheid movement.
Practice Questions
International economic sanctions played a pivotal role in exerting pressure on the South African government. The disinvestment campaigns and trade embargoes, spearheaded by a global anti-apartheid sentiment, notably impacted the nation's economy, leading to a weakened currency and reduced foreign investment. While sanctions were not solely responsible for the dismantlement of apartheid, they undeniably created a dire economic situation that, alongside domestic and political pressures, pushed the government towards reform. An excellent IB History student would recognise that the sanctions, though variably enforced, were integral to the multi-pronged strategy that eventually eroded the viability of the apartheid system.
The United Nations was instrumental in escalating international opposition to apartheid, providing a platform for global condemnation and the passage of resolutions against South Africa's racial policies. The UN legitimised the anti-apartheid struggle through its sanctions and arms embargoes, most notably through Resolution 418. Moreover, the 1973 International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid marked apartheid as a crime under international law, significantly heightening moral and political pressure. An astute IB History student would highlight the UN's role in both symbolically and practically undermining apartheid, even if the effectiveness of its actions was sometimes blunted by the geopolitical interests of member states.
