In the early 20th century, Japan experienced significant domestic challenges that had profound implications for its external ambitions.

Political Landscape

Taishō Democracy (1912-1926)

This period marked a tentative shift towards liberal governance, reflecting global movements towards democratic norms.

• Political Parties:
  • Rikken Seiyūkai: Founded in 1900, it was the dominant party during much of the Taishō period. Its leaders sought a balance between preserving the power of the oligarchs and responding to pressures for broader political participation.
  • Rikken Minseitō: Established in 1927, it often opposed the Seiyūkai and championed more liberal policies and government reforms.
• Universal Male Suffrage:
  • Enacted in 1925, this significant political shift aimed to extend the right to vote to all adult males.
  • However, it was accompanied by the Peace Preservation Law, which severely restricted political freedoms, hinting at the contradictions of the era.
• Rice Riots of 1918: A pivotal event demonstrating mass discontent.
  • Sparked by rising rice prices, they started in Toyama but spread to many parts of Japan.
  • They indicated that the benefits of Japan’s economic growth were not being evenly distributed and revealed deep-seated issues of governance.

Shift to Militarism

By the late 1920s, the delicate balance of civilian-military power started to tilt in favour of the military.

• March Incident (1931):
  • Young naval officers, discontented with both the civilian government and their own naval superiors, attempted a coup. Their aim was to establish a more militaristic, emperor-centred government.
  • Although unsuccessful, it showcased the growing power and ambition of mid-ranking military officers.
• May 15 Incident (1932):
  • A group of young naval officers and army cadets assassinated Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi.
  • The culprits received light sentences, a testament to the growing influence and sympathy for militaristic ideologies.

Economic Challenges

Post-WWI Economic Boom

Japan emerged as an economic power after WWI, but this growth was uneven.

• Zaibatsu:
  • Mega-corporations like Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, and Yasuda played crucial roles in Japan’s economic ascent.
  • Their power wasn't just economic; they also wielded considerable political influence, often guiding national policy.
• Rural-Urban Disparity:
  • Cities like Tokyo and Osaka experienced rapid growth and modernisation.
  • Conversely, rural Japan, especially tenant farmers, grappled with oppressive rents and a lack of modern amenities.

Impact of the Great Depression

The global economic downturn severely impacted Japan’s export-dependent economy.

• Drop in Exports:
  • The silk industry, a primary export, was hit particularly hard.
  • The decline in global demand coupled with competitive challenges from synthetics decimated the industry.
• Unemployment:
  • Urban areas saw factory closures, leading to rising joblessness.
  • Rural areas weren't spared either, as declining commodity prices made farming unprofitable.
• Return to Gold Standard (1930):
  • Japan’s decision to return to the gold standard at the pre-war parity rate led to an appreciating yen, making exports more expensive and exacerbating economic woes.
• Economic Influence on Foreign Policy:
  • Resource needs, especially for raw materials like oil and iron, drove Japan’s gaze overseas.
  • The military proposed territorial expansion as a panacea for economic troubles, a stance that found resonance with many.

Social Unrest

Urbanisation

Rapid industrialisation reshaped Japan’s societal fabric.

• Labour Movements:
  • Labour unions, inspired by socialist and communist ideologies, began demanding better working conditions and wages, leading to strikes and protests.
  • The government often viewed these movements with suspicion, associating them with subversive activities.

Rural Hardships

The countryside faced a different set of challenges.

• Tenant Movements:
  • Tenant farmers, burdened with high rents and debts, started organising movements demanding land reforms and better treatment.

Women’s Rights Movement

Taking inspiration from global feminist movements, Japanese women began to voice their aspirations.

• Women’s Suffrage:
  • While the right to vote was a distant goal, the Taishō period saw the beginnings of feminist activism.
  • Groups like the Blue Stocking Society, founded in 1911, began advocating for women’s education, rights, and suffrage.

Implications for Foreign Policy and Expansion

• Search for Resources:
  • The need for resources, especially after the economic downturn, became a pressing concern.
  • East Asia, rich in resources and perceived as politically fragmented, became a target.
• Population Pressure:
  • Urban congestion and rural land pressures presented a demographic challenge.
  • Expansionist strategies, portraying overseas territories as lands of opportunity, gained traction.
• Nationalistic Education:
  • To foster unity and instil a sense of purpose, the education system was tailored to promote nationalism.
  • Schools became platforms for disseminating the ethos of loyalty to the emperor and the nation.

Amidst these domestic challenges, Japan’s leadership saw territorial expansion not just as an economic necessity but also as a means to restore and assert national pride and purpose.