Virtue ethics, a school of thought in normative ethical theory, underscores the significance of moral character and virtues rather than solely focusing on the outcomes of actions or adherence to rules. Through exploring the work of Aristotle, Alasdair MacIntyre, and G.E.M. Anscombe, we delve into how virtues form the core of ethical decision-making and shape one's character.
The Foundations of Virtue Ethics
This section lays the groundwork for understanding virtue ethics, including its history, key concepts, and the pivotal figures who have contributed to its development.
Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics
Aristotle’s virtue ethics is a central piece of ethical theory that has significantly influenced Western philosophy.
- Eudaimonia: The concept of eudaimonia, often translated as 'happiness' or 'flourishing,' is the ultimate goal of human life in Aristotle's view. It is achieved by living virtuously, in accordance with reason.
- Virtuous Acts and Moral Development: Aristotle posits that performing virtuous acts does not make one virtuous. Instead, one must act knowingly, decide on the act for its own sake, and act from a firm character.
- The Doctrine of the Mean: Virtue is about finding the balance between two extremes—this is Aristotle’s famous 'Doctrine of the Mean.' For instance, generosity lies between stinginess and profligacy.
- Intellectual Virtues: Alongside moral virtues, Aristotle also identifies intellectual virtues, including wisdom, understanding, and prudence, which are developed through teaching and learning.
Alasdair MacIntyre’s Contribution
MacIntyre’s work brings virtue ethics into a modern context, providing a critique of contemporary moral philosophy and a proposal for its revision.
- Traditions and Practices: MacIntyre underscores the importance of traditions and practices in understanding and cultivating virtues. He believes that virtues are fostered through participation in social practices.
- Critique of Modern Moral Philosophy: He criticises the fragmentation of moral discourse in modernity, suggesting that the lack of a coherent narrative has led to the impoverishment of moral language and practice.
G.E.M. Anscombe’s Perspectives
G.E.M. Anscombe is credited with igniting a renewed interest in virtue ethics in the 20th century with her groundbreaking paper "Modern Moral Philosophy".
- Intention and Action: Anscombe suggests that ethical theory should focus more on a person's intentions and the virtues or vices those intentions reflect, rather than on the laws or rules governing actions.
- Moral Psychology: She emphasises moral psychology, proposing that a proper understanding of virtues requires an examination of human psychology and the nature of human action.
Key Concepts in Virtue Ethics
Virtue and Character
- Character and Virtue: Character is the seat of virtues. It is the set of dispositions and habits that define how an individual is inclined to behave.
- Moral and Intellectual Virtues: Aristotle distinguishes between moral virtues, which govern our interactions with others, and intellectual virtues, which guide our understanding and reasoning.
Virtues as Dispositions
- Development of Virtues: Virtues are developed through practice and habituation. They are not innate but are cultivated through conscious effort and deliberate choices.
- Virtues and Practical Rationality: Virtues are informed by practical rationality. They enable a person to reason correctly about the good life and to act in accordance with that reasoning.
The Significance of Virtues in Ethical Decision-Making
Practical Wisdom (Phronesis)
- Decision-Making and Wisdom: Practical wisdom is the virtue that allows individuals to make the right choices in particular situations. It requires a deep understanding of the moral aspects of life and the ability to deliberate well about them.
The Role of the Community
- Development Within a Community: Virtues are often learned and exhibited within the context of a community. The community provides the standards of excellence that define virtuous actions.
Critiques and Challenges
- Moral Relativism: Virtue ethics faces the challenge of moral relativism since virtues can vary greatly between cultures and societies.
- Lack of Prescriptive Clarity: Critics point out that virtue ethics does not always provide clear-cut answers to moral dilemmas, potentially leaving individuals without guidance in complex situations.
Educational Implications in IB Philosophy
Developing Virtuous Individuals
- Cultivating Good Habits: The emphasis on character formation within IB Philosophy aligns with the virtue ethics’ view that virtues are developed through habituation and practice.
Ethics Across Cultures
- Understanding Different Virtue Concepts: Students are encouraged to study and understand the different conceptions of virtue across various cultures, fostering a global and empathetic mindset.
Contemporary Moral Issues
- Virtue Ethics in Action: Virtue ethics provides a unique perspective on current ethical issues by focusing on the character of the individuals involved and the virtues that their actions embody or lack.
FAQ
Virtue ethicists argue that virtues are cultivated through practice and habituation. This process involves engaging in actions that embody the virtue, reflecting on these actions, and learning from both positive and negative experiences. It requires the presence of a community or society that understands and values these virtues, as they provide the standard against which the actions are measured. Moreover, the cultivation of virtues involves a deliberate and mindful attempt to integrate these virtues into one's life, guided by practical wisdom. It is a lifelong journey that evolves with experience and reflection.
Virtue ethics notably accounts for the role of emotions in ethical decision-making, considering them as an integral part of the virtuous life when they are properly aligned with reason and virtue. Aristotle and other virtue ethicists recognise that emotions can be educated and refined to support virtuous action. Emotions like empathy can guide us to act compassionately, while feelings such as indignation might reflect a sense of justice. The key is to cultivate emotions in a way that they harmonise with and support the exercise of virtues rather than lead us impulsively or irrationally. Virtue ethics seeks to integrate emotions into a well-rounded moral character.
Virtue ethics can indeed be applied in a professional context by emphasising the development of good character and the virtues pertinent to a specific profession. In business, this might involve fostering virtues such as fairness, honesty, and respect for others, guiding decisions that affect stakeholders. In law, virtues like justice, integrity, and prudence are crucial for the fair and compassionate practice of legal responsibilities. Virtue ethics encourages professionals to act not just in accordance with regulations or for the best consequences but to embody the virtues that define their professional roles at their best.
In virtue ethics, an action that goes against societal norms can sometimes be justified if it aligns with one's character virtues, provided that these virtues are well-founded and cultivated in accordance with a virtuous life. Virtue ethicists believe that society's norms are not always correct or moral. It's the role of the virtuous person to question and assess these norms through the lens of practical wisdom. For example, a society might normalise greed or dishonesty in certain sectors, but a virtue ethicist would argue against these practices if they conflict with virtues like generosity and honesty. It is the agent's cultivated virtues, rather than societal norms, that offer the best guide to action.
Virtue ethicists approach moral dilemmas by focusing on the character of the moral agent rather than on the application of moral rules or the calculation of consequences. They argue that a person who has cultivated virtues will be able to make the right decision when faced with a moral dilemma. This approach does not provide a systematic method for resolving every ethical conflict but rather depends on the moral agent's ability to discern the most virtuous course of action through practical wisdom (phronesis). The cultivation of a virtuous character is meant to prepare one for such decisions, with the understanding that life's complexity often precludes simple or universal answers.
Practice Questions
In addressing modern ethical dilemmas like digital privacy, virtue ethics might be challenged by its focus on character and virtue, which can seem too abstract compared to the specificity of rules-based or consequentialist approaches. Virtue ethics relies on the cultivation of good character to navigate complex issues, which may not provide immediate or clear-cut solutions. Moreover, in an age of technological complexity, discerning the virtuous course may require specialised knowledge that goes beyond the traditional scope of virtue ethics. Yet, the flexibility and emphasis on moral character can also be strengths, as they allow for a nuanced approach to emerging ethical quandaries.
An excellent response to this question would acknowledge that in Aristotle's virtue ethics, practical wisdom or phronesis is paramount for ethical decision-making. It's the virtue that enables an individual to deliberate well about what is good and beneficial for themselves and society, thus allowing one to live in accordance with virtuous principles. Practical wisdom guides one's choices, orchestrating other virtues by informing the individual when, how, and why they should act virtuously. In contrast, theoretical wisdom or sophia is concerned with truth and understanding the world intellectually. While sophia seeks knowledge for its own sake, phronesis applies ethical knowledge to actions in one's life.
