This section examines the era of Jan Smuts and J.B.M. Hertzog, focusing on their policies of segregation and discrimination that shaped the socio-political landscape of South Africa.
Contextual Background: Union and Leadership
The Union of South Africa
- Formed in 1910, uniting the former British colonies and Boer republics.
- The Union established a dominion status within the British Empire, with its own constitution.
Prime Ministership and Ideologies
- Jan Smuts: A military leader and philosopher-statesman, he advocated for reconciliation between Afrikaners and British descendants, while maintaining systemic racial segregation.
- J.B.M. Hertzog: An Afrikaner nationalist, he pushed for the rights of Afrikaners and the further marginalisation of black South Africans.
Legislative Foundations of Segregation
The Natives Land Act of 1913
- Legislated under Smuts’ ministry, the Act restricted black land ownership, exacerbating racial disparities and sowing the seeds for future upheaval.
The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923
- Drafted during Hertzog’s time, it aimed at segregating urban spaces and controlling the influx of black Africans into cities.
Hertzog’s Political Maneuvers
Formation of the Pact Government
- In 1924, Hertzog formed a coalition with the Labour Party, known as the Pact Government, solidifying his position and ability to pass segregationist legislation.
Economic and Employment Policies
- Hertzog’s government introduced the Civilised Labour Policy, which essentially reserved certain jobs for whites only, contributing to the socio-economic disenfranchisement of non-whites.
Education and Social Policies
The Bantu Education Policy
- Although formally instituted post-1948, the Bantu Education policy had its roots in this period, aiming to provide different and unequal education for non-white South Africans.
Pass Laws and Residential Segregation
- The Pass Laws Act of 1930, under Hertzog, restricted the movement of black South Africans and is seen as a precursor to the Apartheid-era pass laws.
- Residential segregation was intensified, with 'White' areas designated and non-whites pushed into separate townships or rural homelands.
Smuts’ Second Tenure and World War II
War Effort and Economic Change
- Smuts’ second term began in 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II.
- South Africa’s alignment with the Allied powers led to economic changes, including industrialisation, which, while it created opportunities, largely benefited the white population.
Impact on Racial Policies
- The war and Smuts’ focus on international affairs did little to change the trajectory of domestic racial policies.
- Social and economic gaps widened, as the benefits of wartime economic growth were not equitably shared across racial lines.
Resistance Movements
African National Congress (ANC)
- Initially formed in 1912, the ANC intensified its efforts during this period to combat oppressive legislation.
- Organised protests, campaigns, and intellectual opposition against segregation were hallmarks of the ANC's activities.
The Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA)
- The CPSA, though often banned, remained influential, especially in worker’s rights movements and the fight against racial discrimination.
- They provided organisational support and ideological framing for anti-segregation efforts.
The Role of Women in Resistance
- Black South African women played a significant role in resisting the pass laws, leading several major protests.
- The 1956 Women’s March to Pretoria, although outside the scope of this period, was built on the foundation of earlier protests by women.
Economic Disparities and Social Tensions
Labour and Industry
- Racial job reservation continued, with strikes and labour disputes becoming increasingly racialised.
- Economic growth in the 1930s and 1940s was not inclusive, leading to increased economic stratification along racial lines.
Urbanisation and Migration
- Rural impoverishment, exacerbated by discriminatory land acts, led to increased migration to urban areas.
- The Urban Areas Act was used to control and limit the urban black population, establishing the groundwork for later Apartheid policies like the Group Areas Act.
Socio-Cultural Impact
Social Services and Amenities
- Racial segregation in public services (hospitals, schools, transportation) was normalised during this period.
- Non-white South Africans received inferior services, reflecting and reinforcing the prevailing racist ideologies.
Residential Segregation
- Segregation extended to housing, with the government establishing separate—and unequal—residential areas for different racial groups.
International Relations and Perception
Smuts’ International Engagement
- Smuts played a significant role in the formation of the United Nations, contributing to the preamble of the UN Charter.
- However, his international stature was marred by his domestic policies, which increasingly drew criticism from abroad.
Hertzog's Struggle for Sovereignty
- Hertzog’s push for South Africa's autonomy from Britain fuelled nationalistic sentiment but strained relationships within the Commonwealth.
- He sought to protect Afrikaner interests and identity through his policies, contributing to the racial divide.
Conclusion of the Smuts and Hertzog Era
By the end of Hertzog and Smuts’ leadership in 1948, South Africa was a deeply divided nation. The policies of segregation and discrimination they either initiated or continued would set the stage for the codification of apartheid after their tenure. Students should note the irony that Smuts’ contributions to international peace and the creation of the League of Nations existed alongside the internal strife and inequality promoted by his domestic policies. Understanding these policies and their socio-political consequences is crucial for comprehending the complex historical landscape that would eventually lead to the institutionalisation of apartheid by the National Party in 1948.
FAQ
Hertzog's economic policies significantly heightened racial tensions. His implementation of the Civilised Labour Policy, which gave preference to white workers over black workers, created resentment and widened economic disparities. This policy was underpinned by racist ideologies that proclaimed the superiority of white civilisation and justified economic discrimination against black South Africans. Moreover, Hertzog's policies intensified economic hardship for non-white populations by enforcing job reservation and limiting access to skilled and well-paying jobs. As economic survival became increasingly challenging for black South Africans, racial tensions escalated, setting the stage for further segregationist policies.
Jan Smuts and J.B.M. Hertzog had markedly different views on British influence. Smuts was an advocate for closer ties with Britain and was instrumental in South Africa's contribution to both World Wars, seeing the British connection as beneficial for South Africa's status on the international stage. In contrast, Hertzog was a proponent of Afrikaner nationalism and sought to diminish British influence, striving for greater legislative and cultural independence. Hertzog's National Party aimed to protect and promote Afrikaner culture and language against the perceived threat of Anglicisation, culminating in the Status of the Union Act of 1934, which removed the last legal powers of the British Parliament over South Africa.
The Representation of Natives Act of 1936 had severe implications for the black South African electorate. It effectively removed black voters from the common voters' roll in the Cape Province, where they had previously enjoyed limited voting rights. Instead, they were given the right to elect three white representatives to the House of Assembly and four to the Senate, through a separate voters' roll. This act drastically reduced their political representation and influence. Additionally, it further entrenched the racial hierarchy in the political system, as the representatives chosen by black voters were white, thus denying black South Africans a direct voice in the government.
The era of Smuts and Hertzog laid the groundwork for apartheid through a series of legislative acts that entrenched racial segregation. Their policies legally codified racial discrimination, particularly with the Natives Land Act of 1913 and the Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923. These laws not only stripped non-white South Africans of their land and mobility but also set the precedent for the institutional architecture of apartheid. By creating separate residential areas and enforcing job reservation, the socio-economic and political foundations of apartheid were established. This systemic discrimination provided the blueprint for the National Party's formal apartheid policies after 1948.
Neither Smuts nor Hertzog made significant efforts to include non-white South Africans in the political process. Under their leadership, the political framework was designed to maintain white supremacy, with policies that systematically excluded non-whites from meaningful participation in the political landscape. Smuts, despite his internationalist outlook and efforts toward creating the League of Nations, did little to challenge the status quo of racial discrimination domestically. Hertzog, whose policies were overtly aimed at entrenching white Afrikaner dominance, further eroded the political agency of non-whites by supporting legislation that limited their voting rights and reinforced segregation.
Practice Questions
Jan Smuts and J.B.M. Hertzog significantly contributed to the socio-economic disparities in South Africa. Smuts, through the Natives Land Act of 1913, facilitated the dispossession of black South Africans, which entrenched economic inequalities. Hertzog's Civilised Labour Policy prioritised white employment, exacerbating job disparities. Although both claimed to work towards national unity, their policies disproportionately advantaged whites, laying a firm foundation for the institutionalised apartheid that followed. The economic growth during World War II under Smuts' leadership failed to bridge these disparities, as war benefits were unequally distributed, perpetuating socio-economic stratification along racial lines.
The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 had a profound impact on South Africa's urban demographic and political landscape. It effectively controlled and restricted the influx and residence of black Africans in urban areas, segregating cities by race and entrenching socio-economic divides. Politically, it fuelled resistance movements like the ANC, which started to coalesce more fervently against the legal framework of segregation. The Act's role in shaping the urban landscape set a precedent for subsequent apartheid laws, demonstrating the state's intent to govern through division, and exacerbated tensions between racial groups in urban settings.
