What were common forms of political organization among pre-Columbian societies?

Pre-Columbian societies commonly used chiefdoms, city-states, and complex empires as forms of political organization.

Chiefdoms were a prevalent form of political organization among pre-Columbian societies, particularly in North America. These were hierarchical, with a single leader, known as a chief, who held political, economic, and religious authority. The chief's power was often hereditary, passed down through family lines. Chiefdoms were typically made up of several communities, each with its own local leader who was subordinate to the chief. The Mississippian culture, which thrived in the southeastern United States from around 800 to 1600 AD, is a prime example of a society organized into chiefdoms.

City-states were another common form of political organization, particularly in Mesoamerica. These were independent, self-governing cities that controlled surrounding territories. Each city-state had its own ruler, who held political and religious authority. The city-states often formed alliances or waged wars against each other. The Classic Maya civilization, which flourished in the southern lowlands of Mesoamerica from around 250 to 900 AD, was organized into a network of city-states.

Complex empires were also a form of political organization among some pre-Columbian societies, particularly in South America. These were large, centralized states that controlled vast territories and diverse populations. The Inca Empire, which ruled over much of western South America from the 13th to the 16th centuries, is a prime example of a complex empire. The Inca emperor, known as the Sapa Inca, held absolute power and was considered a divine ruler. The empire was highly organized, with a centralized bureaucracy, a professional army, and a complex system of roads and storehouses.

In conclusion, pre-Columbian societies used a variety of forms of political organization, including chiefdoms, city-states, and complex empires. These forms of organization reflected the diverse cultures, environments, and historical trajectories of these societies.