How did China respond to Western imperialism pre-1912?

China responded to Western imperialism pre-1912 primarily through resistance, reform, and attempts at self-strengthening.

In the mid-19th century, China was a target of Western imperialism, with Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan all seeking to exert influence and control over the country. China's initial response was one of resistance. This was evident in the two Opium Wars against Britain (1839-1842 and 1856-1860), where China sought to resist British attempts to force open Chinese markets to opium trade. However, China's outdated military technology and tactics led to defeat and the signing of unequal treaties, which further eroded China's sovereignty.

In response to these defeats, China embarked on a series of reforms known as the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895). The movement aimed to modernise China's military and economy by adopting Western technology while retaining traditional Chinese values. However, the reforms were hampered by conservative opposition, corruption, and a lack of centralised leadership. Despite some successes, such as the establishment of modern arsenals and shipyards, the movement was unable to prevent further encroachments by Western powers.

The failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement led to a more radical push for reform in the late 19th century. The Hundred Days' Reform in 1898, led by the Guangxu Emperor and reformist officials like Kang Youwei, sought to transform China into a constitutional monarchy and implement far-reaching social, political, and educational reforms. However, the reform movement was short-lived, as it was crushed by conservative forces led by the Empress Dowager Cixi.

In the early 20th century, disillusionment with the Qing Dynasty's inability to resist Western imperialism led to the rise of revolutionary movements, most notably the Revolutionary Alliance led by Sun Yat-sen. These movements sought to overthrow the Qing Dynasty and establish a republic, which they achieved in the 1911 Revolution. However, the new Republic of China continued to face challenges from Western imperialism and internal instability.

IB History Tutor Summary: Before 1912, China tried to deal with Western imperialism by fighting against it, modernising through the Self-Strengthening Movement, and attempting wide-reaching reforms with the Hundred Days' Reform. Despite these efforts, they faced defeats and political setbacks. Ultimately, frustration with the Qing Dynasty's failures led to the 1911 Revolution and the establishment of the Republic of China, though challenges remained.