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IBDP Chemistry 2025 HL

Study Notes

1. Models of the Particulate Nature of Matter

1.1.1 Understanding Elements 1.1.2 Exploring Compounds 1.1.3 Mixtures and Their Properties 1.1.4 Separation and Purification Techniques 1.1.5 Intermolecular Forces and Mixtures 1.1.6 Kinetic Molecular Theory and States of Matter 1.1.7 Substances and Conditions 1.1.8 Temperature, Energy, and Reactions

1.2.1 Composition of the Atom 1.2.2 Chemical Properties of Atoms 1.2.3 Isotopes and Their Properties 1.2.4 Mass Spectra and Isotopic Composition 1.2.5 Fragmentation Patterns in Mass Spectrometry

1.3.1 Emission Spectra and Energy Levels 1.3.2 Hydrogen's Emission Spectrum 1.3.3 Main Energy Levels and Electrons 1.3.4 Sublevels and Atomic Orbitals 1.3.5 Electron Configurations and Orbital Diagrams 1.3.6 Ionization and Spectral Data 1.3.7 Successive Ionisation Energy

1.4.1 The Mole and Avogadro's Constant 1.4.2 Masses and the Mole 1.4.3 Empirical and Molecular Formulas 1.4.4 Concentration, Solutions, and Dilutions 1.4.5 Avogadro’s Law and Real Gases

1.5.1 The Ideal Gas Model 1.5.2 Behaviour and Properties of Ideal Gases 1.5.3 Gas Laws and Calculations

1.1.1 Understanding Elements 1.1.2 Exploring Compounds 1.1.3 Mixtures and Their Properties 1.1.4 Separation and Purification Techniques 1.1.5 Intermolecular Forces and Mixtures 1.1.6 Kinetic Molecular Theory and States of Matter 1.1.7 Substances and Conditions 1.1.8 Temperature, Energy, and Reactions

1.2.1 Composition of the Atom 1.2.2 Chemical Properties of Atoms 1.2.3 Isotopes and Their Properties 1.2.4 Mass Spectra and Isotopic Composition 1.2.5 Fragmentation Patterns in Mass Spectrometry

1.3.1 Emission Spectra and Energy Levels 1.3.2 Hydrogen's Emission Spectrum 1.3.3 Main Energy Levels and Electrons 1.3.4 Sublevels and Atomic Orbitals 1.3.5 Electron Configurations and Orbital Diagrams 1.3.6 Ionization and Spectral Data 1.3.7 Successive Ionisation Energy

1.4.1 The Mole and Avogadro's Constant 1.4.2 Masses and the Mole 1.4.3 Empirical and Molecular Formulas 1.4.4 Concentration, Solutions, and Dilutions 1.4.5 Avogadro’s Law and Real Gases

1.5.1 The Ideal Gas Model 1.5.2 Behaviour and Properties of Ideal Gases 1.5.3 Gas Laws and Calculations

2. Models of Bonding and Structure
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2.1.1 Ion Formation and Prediction 2.1.2 Ionic Bonding and Compound Naming 2.1.3 Properties and Structure of Ionic Compounds

2.2.1 Fundamentals of Covalent Bonding 2.2.2 Multiplicity in Covalent Bonds 2.2.3 Special Case: Coordination Covalent Bonding 2.2.4 Predicting Molecular Shapes with VSEPR 2.2.5 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 2.2.6 From Bond Polarity to Molecular Polarity 2.2.7 Diversity in Covalent Structures: Allotropes and Network Solids 2.2.8 Intermolecular Forces: Beyond Covalent Bonds 2.2.9 Physical Properties Stemming from Molecular Interactions 2.2.10 Chromatography: Interplay of Intermolecular Forces 2.2.11 Resonance and Delocalisation in Covalent Bonding 2.2.12 Sigma and Pi Bonds: Delving into Molecular Orbitals 2.2.13 Hybridisation: Adapting Atomic Orbitals for Bonding

2.3.1 Nature and Properties of Metallic Bonds 2.3.2 Factors Influencing Metallic Bond Strength 2.3.3 Transition Elements and Delocalised d-electrons

2.4.1 Understanding Bonding Continuum 2.4.2 Compounds in the Bonding Triangle 2.4.3 Exploring Alloys and Polymers 2.4.4 Delving into Condensation Polymers

2.1.1 Ion Formation and Prediction 2.1.2 Ionic Bonding and Compound Naming 2.1.3 Properties and Structure of Ionic Compounds

2.2.1 Fundamentals of Covalent Bonding 2.2.2 Multiplicity in Covalent Bonds 2.2.3 Special Case: Coordination Covalent Bonding 2.2.4 Predicting Molecular Shapes with VSEPR 2.2.5 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity 2.2.6 From Bond Polarity to Molecular Polarity 2.2.7 Diversity in Covalent Structures: Allotropes and Network Solids 2.2.8 Intermolecular Forces: Beyond Covalent Bonds 2.2.9 Physical Properties Stemming from Molecular Interactions 2.2.10 Chromatography: Interplay of Intermolecular Forces 2.2.11 Resonance and Delocalisation in Covalent Bonding 2.2.12 Sigma and Pi Bonds: Delving into Molecular Orbitals 2.2.13 Hybridisation: Adapting Atomic Orbitals for Bonding

2.3.1 Nature and Properties of Metallic Bonds 2.3.2 Factors Influencing Metallic Bond Strength 2.3.3 Transition Elements and Delocalised d-electrons

2.4.1 Understanding Bonding Continuum 2.4.2 Compounds in the Bonding Triangle 2.4.3 Exploring Alloys and Polymers 2.4.4 Delving into Condensation Polymers

3. Classification of Matter
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3.1.1 Periodic Table Fundamentals 3.1.2 Electron Configuration and Elemental Groups 3.1.3 Periodicity in Elemental Properties 3.1.4 Reactivity Trends in Groups 1 and 17 3.1.5 Metal and Non-Metal Oxides: A Continuum 3.1.6 Oxidation States and Their Significance 3.1.7 Discontinuities in Ionisation Energy 3.1.8 Unique Properties of Transition Elements

3.2.1 Organic Compounds: Representation and Uniqueness 3.2.2 Functional Groups and Classification 3.2.3 Homologous Series and Their Trends 3.2.4 Nomenclature and Isomerism 3.2.5 Stereoisomers, Chirality, and Optical Activity 3.2.6 Analytical Techniques: Mass Spectrometry 3.2.7 Infrared and NMR Spectroscopy 3.2.8 Advanced NMR Techniques and Combined Analytical Approaches

3.1.1 Periodic Table Fundamentals 3.1.2 Electron Configuration and Elemental Groups 3.1.3 Periodicity in Elemental Properties 3.1.4 Reactivity Trends in Groups 1 and 17 3.1.5 Metal and Non-Metal Oxides: A Continuum 3.1.6 Oxidation States and Their Significance 3.1.7 Discontinuities in Ionisation Energy 3.1.8 Unique Properties of Transition Elements

3.2.1 Organic Compounds: Representation and Uniqueness 3.2.2 Functional Groups and Classification 3.2.3 Homologous Series and Their Trends 3.2.4 Nomenclature and Isomerism 3.2.5 Stereoisomers, Chirality, and Optical Activity 3.2.6 Analytical Techniques: Mass Spectrometry 3.2.7 Infrared and NMR Spectroscopy 3.2.8 Advanced NMR Techniques and Combined Analytical Approaches

4. What Drives Chemical Reactions?
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4.1.1 Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions 4.1.2 Stability and Energy Profiles 4.1.3 Standard Enthalpy Change (ΔH⦵)

4.2.1 Bond Energies and Reactions 4.2.2 Hess’s Law and Enthalpy Changes 4.2.3 Applications of Hess's Law 4.2.4 Born–Haber Cycles for Ionic Compounds

4.3.1 Combustion Reactions 4.3.2 Incomplete Combustion and Risks 4.3.3 Fossil Fuels and Environmental Impact 4.3.4 Biofuels and Sustainability 4.3.5 Fuel Cells and Energy Conversion

4.4.1 Understanding Entropy 4.4.2 Gibbs Energy and Reaction Spontaneity 4.4.3 Entropy, Equilibrium, and Gibbs Energy 4.4.4 Spontaneity in Electrochemical Reactions 4.4.5 Entropy at Absolute Zero

4.1.1 Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions 4.1.2 Stability and Energy Profiles 4.1.3 Standard Enthalpy Change (ΔH⦵)

4.2.1 Bond Energies and Reactions 4.2.2 Hess’s Law and Enthalpy Changes 4.2.3 Applications of Hess's Law 4.2.4 Born–Haber Cycles for Ionic Compounds

4.3.1 Combustion Reactions 4.3.2 Incomplete Combustion and Risks 4.3.3 Fossil Fuels and Environmental Impact 4.3.4 Biofuels and Sustainability 4.3.5 Fuel Cells and Energy Conversion

4.4.1 Understanding Entropy 4.4.2 Gibbs Energy and Reaction Spontaneity 4.4.3 Entropy, Equilibrium, and Gibbs Energy 4.4.4 Spontaneity in Electrochemical Reactions 4.4.5 Entropy at Absolute Zero

5. How Much, How Fast and How Far?
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5.1.1 Chemical Equations and Reacting Ratios 5.1.2 Mole Ratios and Reacting Quantities 5.1.3 Yield Calculations and Limiting Reactants 5.1.4 Atom Economy and Green Chemistry

5.2.1 Rate of Reaction and Measurement Techniques 5.2.2 Collision Theory and Kinetic Energy 5.2.3 Factors Influencing Reaction Rates 5.2.4 Activation Energy and Reaction Probability 5.2.5 Role of Catalysts in Chemical Reactions 5.2.6 Reaction Mechanisms and Intermediates 5.2.7 Energy Profiles in Multi-step Reactions 5.2.8 Molecularity of Reactions 5.2.9 Rate Equations and Reaction Orders 5.2.10 Arrhenius Equation and Activation Energy

5.3.1 Dynamic Equilibrium 5.3.2 The Equilibrium Law 5.3.3 Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant 5.3.4 Le Châtelier’s Principle 5.3.5 Reaction Quotient and Equilibrium 5.3.6 Equilibrium, Gibbs Energy, and Reaction Position

5.1.1 Chemical Equations and Reacting Ratios 5.1.2 Mole Ratios and Reacting Quantities 5.1.3 Yield Calculations and Limiting Reactants 5.1.4 Atom Economy and Green Chemistry

5.2.1 Rate of Reaction and Measurement Techniques 5.2.2 Collision Theory and Kinetic Energy 5.2.3 Factors Influencing Reaction Rates 5.2.4 Activation Energy and Reaction Probability 5.2.5 Role of Catalysts in Chemical Reactions 5.2.6 Reaction Mechanisms and Intermediates 5.2.7 Energy Profiles in Multi-step Reactions 5.2.8 Molecularity of Reactions 5.2.9 Rate Equations and Reaction Orders 5.2.10 Arrhenius Equation and Activation Energy

5.3.1 Dynamic Equilibrium 5.3.2 The Equilibrium Law 5.3.3 Magnitude of the Equilibrium Constant 5.3.4 Le Châtelier’s Principle 5.3.5 Reaction Quotient and Equilibrium 5.3.6 Equilibrium, Gibbs Energy, and Reaction Position

6. What are the Mechanisms of Chemical Change?
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6.1.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases 6.1.2 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 6.1.3 Amphiprotic Species 6.1.4 The pH Scale 6.1.5 Ion Product Constant of Water (Kw)6.1.6 Strong vs Weak Acids and Bases 6.1.7 Neutralisation Reactions 6.1.8 pH Curves in Neutralisation 6.1.9 Proton Transfer Reactions: pOH Scale and Weak Acid/Base Strengths 6.1.10 Ka and Kb Relationships 6.1.11 pH of Salt Solutions 6.1.12 pH Curves and Indicators 6.1.13 Buffer Solutions

6.2.1 Understanding Oxidation and Reduction 6.2.2 Redox Reactions and Half-Equations 6.2.3 Reactions of Metals and Acids 6.2.4 Electrochemical Cells: Basics and Primary Cells 6.2.5 Secondary Cells and Electrolytic Cells 6.2.6 Organic Compounds: Oxidation 6.2.7 Organic Compounds: Reduction 6.2.8 Standard Electrode Potentials 6.2.9 Gibbs Energy and Electrochemical Cells 6.2.10 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 6.2.11 Electroplating and Practical Applications

6.3.1 Understanding Radicals and Their Formation 6.3.2 Radical Reactions with Alkanes

6.4.1 Understanding Nucleophiles and Electrophiles 6.4.2 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions 6.4.3 Electrophilic Reactions of Alkenes 6.4.4 Lewis Acids and Bases 6.4.5 Coordination Bonds and Complex Ions 6.4.6 Mechanisms of Nucleophilic Substitution 6.4.7 Factors Influencing Substitution Reactions 6.4.8 Electrophilic Addition Reactions 6.4.9 Electrophilic Substitution in Aromatic Compounds

6.1.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids and Bases 6.1.2 Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 6.1.3 Amphiprotic Species 6.1.4 The pH Scale 6.1.5 Ion Product Constant of Water (Kw)6.1.6 Strong vs Weak Acids and Bases 6.1.7 Neutralisation Reactions 6.1.8 pH Curves in Neutralisation 6.1.9 Proton Transfer Reactions: pOH Scale and Weak Acid/Base Strengths 6.1.10 Ka and Kb Relationships 6.1.11 pH of Salt Solutions 6.1.12 pH Curves and Indicators 6.1.13 Buffer Solutions

6.2.1 Understanding Oxidation and Reduction 6.2.2 Redox Reactions and Half-Equations 6.2.3 Reactions of Metals and Acids 6.2.4 Electrochemical Cells: Basics and Primary Cells 6.2.5 Secondary Cells and Electrolytic Cells 6.2.6 Organic Compounds: Oxidation 6.2.7 Organic Compounds: Reduction 6.2.8 Standard Electrode Potentials 6.2.9 Gibbs Energy and Electrochemical Cells 6.2.10 Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 6.2.11 Electroplating and Practical Applications

6.3.1 Understanding Radicals and Their Formation 6.3.2 Radical Reactions with Alkanes

6.4.1 Understanding Nucleophiles and Electrophiles 6.4.2 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions 6.4.3 Electrophilic Reactions of Alkenes 6.4.4 Lewis Acids and Bases 6.4.5 Coordination Bonds and Complex Ions 6.4.6 Mechanisms of Nucleophilic Substitution 6.4.7 Factors Influencing Substitution Reactions 6.4.8 Electrophilic Addition Reactions 6.4.9 Electrophilic Substitution in Aromatic Compounds

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