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IBDP Biology 2025 HL

Study notes

1. Unity and Diversity

1.1.1 Properties of Water 1.1.2 Molecular Structure and Bonding 1.1.3 Cohesion, Adhesion, and Surface Tension 1.1.4 Solvent Properties and Metabolism 1.1.5 Physical Properties and Aquatic Life 1.1.6 Extraplanetary Origin and Life Search

1.2.1 DNA and RNA Basics 1.2.2 Molecular Structure and Bonding 1.2.3 DNA Replication and Diversity 1.2.4 Advanced Concepts in Nucleic Acids

1.3.1 Conditions on Early Earth 1.3.2 Cells as Smallest Units of Life 1.3.3 Spontaneous Origin of Cells 1.3.4 Evidence for Origin of Carbon Compounds 1.3.5 Formation of Vesicles 1.3.6 RNA as First Genetic Material 1.3.7 Evidence for Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)1.3.8 Estimation of Dates 1.3.9 LUCA's Evolution near Hydrothermal Vents

1.4.1 Cells as Basic Structural Units 1.4.2 Microscopy Skills 1.4.3 Developments in Microscopy 1.4.4 Structures Common to All Cells 1.4.5 Prokaryote Cell Structure 1.4.6 Eukaryote Cell Structure 1.4.7 Processes in Unicellular Organisms 1.4.8 Differences in Eukaryotic Cell Structure 1.4.9 Atypical Cell Structure 1.4.10 Cell Types and Structures in Micrographs 1.4.11 Drawing and Annotation 1.4.12 Origin of Eukaryotic Cells 1.4.13 Cell Differentiation 1.4.14 Evolution of Multicellularity

1.5.1 Structural Features 1.5.2 Diversity in Viruses 1.5.3 Lytic Cycle 1.5.4 Lysogenic Cycle 1.5.5 Evidence for Virus Origins 1.5.6 Rapid Evolution in Viruses

1.6.1 Organismal Variation 1.6.2 Species Definition 1.6.3 Binomial Naming System 1.6.4 Speciation Process 1.6.5 Chromosomal Diversity 1.6.6 Genomic Unity and Diversity 1.6.7 Genome Size and Complexity 1.6.8 Genome Sequencing 1.6.9 Asexual Reproduction and Species Concept

1.7.1 Need for Classification 1.7.2 Traditional vs. Cladistic Classification 1.7.3 Clades and Evolutionary Relationships 1.7.4 Molecular Clock and Cladograms 1.7.5 Cladogram Analysis 1.7.6 Reclassification Case Studies 1.7.7 Three Domain Classification

1.8.1 Evolution as Change in Heritable Characteristics 1.8.2 Evidence for Evolution from Sequences 1.8.3 Evidence for Evolution from Selective Breed 1.8.4 Evidence for Evolution from Homologous Structures 1.8.5 Convergent Evolution 1.8.6 Speciation by Splitting of Pre-existing Species 1.8.7 Roles of Reproductive Isolation and Differential Selection in Speciation 1.8.8 Differences and Similarities between Sympatric and Allopatric Speciation 1.8.9 Adaptive Radiation as a Source of Biodiversity 1.8.10 Barriers to Hybridization and Sterility of Interspecific Hybrids 1.8.11 Abrupt Speciation in Plants by Hybridization and Polyploidy

1.9.1 Biodiversity Definition 1.9.2 Comparisons between Current and Past Biodiversity 1.9.3 Causes of Anthropogenic Species Extinction 1.9.4 Causes of Ecosystem Loss 1.9.5 Evidence for a Biodiversity Crisis 1.9.6 Causes of the Current Biodiversity Crisis 1.9.7 Approaches to Biodiversity Conservation 1.9.8 Selection of EDGE Species for Conservation

1.1.1 Properties of Water 1.1.2 Molecular Structure and Bonding 1.1.3 Cohesion, Adhesion, and Surface Tension 1.1.4 Solvent Properties and Metabolism 1.1.5 Physical Properties and Aquatic Life 1.1.6 Extraplanetary Origin and Life Search

1.2.1 DNA and RNA Basics 1.2.2 Molecular Structure and Bonding 1.2.3 DNA Replication and Diversity 1.2.4 Advanced Concepts in Nucleic Acids

1.3.1 Conditions on Early Earth 1.3.2 Cells as Smallest Units of Life 1.3.3 Spontaneous Origin of Cells 1.3.4 Evidence for Origin of Carbon Compounds 1.3.5 Formation of Vesicles 1.3.6 RNA as First Genetic Material 1.3.7 Evidence for Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)1.3.8 Estimation of Dates 1.3.9 LUCA's Evolution near Hydrothermal Vents

1.4.1 Cells as Basic Structural Units 1.4.2 Microscopy Skills 1.4.3 Developments in Microscopy 1.4.4 Structures Common to All Cells 1.4.5 Prokaryote Cell Structure 1.4.6 Eukaryote Cell Structure 1.4.7 Processes in Unicellular Organisms 1.4.8 Differences in Eukaryotic Cell Structure 1.4.9 Atypical Cell Structure 1.4.10 Cell Types and Structures in Micrographs 1.4.11 Drawing and Annotation 1.4.12 Origin of Eukaryotic Cells 1.4.13 Cell Differentiation 1.4.14 Evolution of Multicellularity

1.5.1 Structural Features 1.5.2 Diversity in Viruses 1.5.3 Lytic Cycle 1.5.4 Lysogenic Cycle 1.5.5 Evidence for Virus Origins 1.5.6 Rapid Evolution in Viruses

1.6.1 Organismal Variation 1.6.2 Species Definition 1.6.3 Binomial Naming System 1.6.4 Speciation Process 1.6.5 Chromosomal Diversity 1.6.6 Genomic Unity and Diversity 1.6.7 Genome Size and Complexity 1.6.8 Genome Sequencing 1.6.9 Asexual Reproduction and Species Concept

1.7.1 Need for Classification 1.7.2 Traditional vs. Cladistic Classification 1.7.3 Clades and Evolutionary Relationships 1.7.4 Molecular Clock and Cladograms 1.7.5 Cladogram Analysis 1.7.6 Reclassification Case Studies 1.7.7 Three Domain Classification

1.8.1 Evolution as Change in Heritable Characteristics 1.8.2 Evidence for Evolution from Sequences 1.8.3 Evidence for Evolution from Selective Breed 1.8.4 Evidence for Evolution from Homologous Structures 1.8.5 Convergent Evolution 1.8.6 Speciation by Splitting of Pre-existing Species 1.8.7 Roles of Reproductive Isolation and Differential Selection in Speciation 1.8.8 Differences and Similarities between Sympatric and Allopatric Speciation 1.8.9 Adaptive Radiation as a Source of Biodiversity 1.8.10 Barriers to Hybridization and Sterility of Interspecific Hybrids 1.8.11 Abrupt Speciation in Plants by Hybridization and Polyploidy

1.9.1 Biodiversity Definition 1.9.2 Comparisons between Current and Past Biodiversity 1.9.3 Causes of Anthropogenic Species Extinction 1.9.4 Causes of Ecosystem Loss 1.9.5 Evidence for a Biodiversity Crisis 1.9.6 Causes of the Current Biodiversity Crisis 1.9.7 Approaches to Biodiversity Conservation 1.9.8 Selection of EDGE Species for Conservation

2. Form and function
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2.1.1 Chemical Properties of Carbon 2.1.2 Macromolecule Production 2.1.3 Hydrolysis Reactions 2.1.4 Monosaccharide Properties 2.1.5 Polysaccharides as Energy Storage 2.1.6 Cellulose as Structural Polysaccharide 2.1.7 Glycoproteins in Cell-Cell Recognition 2.1.8 Lipid Hydrophobic Properties

2.2.1 Amino Acids and Peptide Formation 2.2.2 Protein Diversity and Structure 2.2.3 Chemical Diversity in R-groups 2.2.4 Protein Conformation 2.2.5 Tertiary and Quaternary Structures 2.2.6 Form, Function, and Environment 2.2.7 Proteins in Biological Processes 2.2.8 Advanced Protein Structures and Functions

2.3.1 Lipid Bilayers as Basis of Cell Membranes 2.3.2 Simple Diffusion Across Membranes 2.3.3 Integral and Peripheral Proteins in Membranes 2.3.4 Water Movement Across Membranes and Osmosis 2.3.5 Selective Permeability and Channel Proteins 2.3.6 Membrane Composition and Fluidity 2.3.7 Membrane Structure and Function 2.3.8 Active Transport and Pump Proteins 2.3.9 Additional Membrane Processes

2.4.1 Organelles in Cells 2.4.2 Nucleus and Cytoplasm Separation 2.4.3 Mitochondrion and Chloroplast Adaptations 2.4.4 Double Membrane of the Nucleus 2.4.5 Ribosomes, ER, Golgi, and Vesicles

2.5.1 Unspecialized Cells and Differentiation 2.5.2 Properties of Stem Cells 2.5.3 Stem Cell Niches in Adult Humans 2.5.4 Types of Stem Cells 2.5.5 Cell Size and Specialization

2.6.1 Vital Function & Surface Properties 2.6.2 Concentration Gradients & Mammalian Adaptations 2.6.3 Lung Ventilation & Volumes 2.6.4 Leaf Adaptations & Tissue Distribution 2.6.5 Transpiration & Stomatal Density 2.6.6 Hemoglobin Adaptations & Bohr Shift

2.7.1 Capillaries and Blood Vessels 2.7.2 Heart Health and Pulse Rates 2.7.3 Plant Transport Systems 2.7.4 Tissue Fluid and Lymphatic System 2.7.5 Circulatory Adaptations 2.7.6 Root and Sap Pressure

2.8.1 Movement in Organisms 2.8.2 Muscle Structure and Function 2.8.3 Joint Movement and Function 2.8.4 Intercostal Muscles 2.8.5 Locomotion and Adaptations

2.9.1 Understanding Habitats and Adaptations 2.9.2 Abiotic Variables and Species Distribution 2.9.3 Ecosystems: Coral Reefs and Biomes 2.9.4 Adaptations in Extreme Environments

2.10.1 Understanding Ecological Niches 2.10.2 Modes of Nutrition and Organism Classification 2.10.3 Adaptations and Diet in Hominidae 2.10.4 Plant-Herbivore and Predator-Prey Dynamics 2.10.5 Adaptations for Light Harvesting in Plants 2.10.6 Niche Fundamentals and Competition

2.1.1 Chemical Properties of Carbon 2.1.2 Macromolecule Production 2.1.3 Hydrolysis Reactions 2.1.4 Monosaccharide Properties 2.1.5 Polysaccharides as Energy Storage 2.1.6 Cellulose as Structural Polysaccharide 2.1.7 Glycoproteins in Cell-Cell Recognition 2.1.8 Lipid Hydrophobic Properties

2.2.1 Amino Acids and Peptide Formation 2.2.2 Protein Diversity and Structure 2.2.3 Chemical Diversity in R-groups 2.2.4 Protein Conformation 2.2.5 Tertiary and Quaternary Structures 2.2.6 Form, Function, and Environment 2.2.7 Proteins in Biological Processes 2.2.8 Advanced Protein Structures and Functions

2.3.1 Lipid Bilayers as Basis of Cell Membranes 2.3.2 Simple Diffusion Across Membranes 2.3.3 Integral and Peripheral Proteins in Membranes 2.3.4 Water Movement Across Membranes and Osmosis 2.3.5 Selective Permeability and Channel Proteins 2.3.6 Membrane Composition and Fluidity 2.3.7 Membrane Structure and Function 2.3.8 Active Transport and Pump Proteins 2.3.9 Additional Membrane Processes

2.4.1 Organelles in Cells 2.4.2 Nucleus and Cytoplasm Separation 2.4.3 Mitochondrion and Chloroplast Adaptations 2.4.4 Double Membrane of the Nucleus 2.4.5 Ribosomes, ER, Golgi, and Vesicles

2.5.1 Unspecialized Cells and Differentiation 2.5.2 Properties of Stem Cells 2.5.3 Stem Cell Niches in Adult Humans 2.5.4 Types of Stem Cells 2.5.5 Cell Size and Specialization

2.6.1 Vital Function & Surface Properties 2.6.2 Concentration Gradients & Mammalian Adaptations 2.6.3 Lung Ventilation & Volumes 2.6.4 Leaf Adaptations & Tissue Distribution 2.6.5 Transpiration & Stomatal Density 2.6.6 Hemoglobin Adaptations & Bohr Shift

2.7.1 Capillaries and Blood Vessels 2.7.2 Heart Health and Pulse Rates 2.7.3 Plant Transport Systems 2.7.4 Tissue Fluid and Lymphatic System 2.7.5 Circulatory Adaptations 2.7.6 Root and Sap Pressure

2.8.1 Movement in Organisms 2.8.2 Muscle Structure and Function 2.8.3 Joint Movement and Function 2.8.4 Intercostal Muscles 2.8.5 Locomotion and Adaptations

2.9.1 Understanding Habitats and Adaptations 2.9.2 Abiotic Variables and Species Distribution 2.9.3 Ecosystems: Coral Reefs and Biomes 2.9.4 Adaptations in Extreme Environments

2.10.1 Understanding Ecological Niches 2.10.2 Modes of Nutrition and Organism Classification 2.10.3 Adaptations and Diet in Hominidae 2.10.4 Plant-Herbivore and Predator-Prey Dynamics 2.10.5 Adaptations for Light Harvesting in Plants 2.10.6 Niche Fundamentals and Competition

3. Interaction and Interdependance
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3.1.1 Understanding Enzymes and Metabolism 3.1.2 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity 3.1.3 Enzyme Kinetics and Activation Energy 3.1.4 Intracellular and Extracellular Enzymes 3.1.5 Pathways in Metabolism 3.1.6 Competitive, Non-competitive Inhibition and Feedback Inhibition 3.1.7 Enzyme Inhibition and Resistance

3.2.1 ATP and Cell Respiration 3.2.2 Anaerobic vs. Aerobic Respiration 3.2.3 Investigating Cell Respiration 3.2.4 Role of NAD in Oxidation-Reduction 3.2.5 Glycolysis and Lactate Formation 3.2.6 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast 3.2.7 The Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport 3.2.8 Chemiosmosis and ATP Synthesis 3.2.9 Oxygen's Role and Respiratory Substrates

3.3.1 Energy Transformation in Photosynthesis 3.3.2 Photosynthetic Pigments and Light Absorption 3.3.3 Investigating Photosynthesis Limiting Factors 3.3.4 Predicting Photosynthesis and Plant Growth 3.3.5 Photosystems and Pigment Arrays 3.3.6 Oxygen Generation and ATP Production 3.3.7 NADP Reduction and Thylakoid Functions 3.3.8 The Calvin Cycle and Carbon Fixation 3.3.9 Interdependence of Photosynthetic Reactions

3.4.1 Receptors and Ligands in Chemical Signalling 3.4.2 Diversity and Function of Signalling Chemicals 3.4.3 Localization and Impact of Signalling Molecules 3.4.4 Receptor Types and Signal Transduction 3.4.5 Transmembrane Receptors and Cellular Responses 3.4.6 Hormone-Receptor Interactions and Cellular Effects 3.4.7 Intracellular Receptors and Gene Expression

3.5.1 Neurons and Their Role in the Nervous System 3.5.2 Resting and Action Potentials in Neurons 3.5.3 Speed Variations in Nerve Impulse Transmission 3.5.4 Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters 3.5.5 Action Potential Dynamics 3.5.6 Advanced Neural Signalling Techniques 3.5.7 Exogenous Chemicals and Neural Regulation 3.5.8 Complex Neural Interactions and Consciousness

3.6.1 System Integration and Coordination 3.6.2 Hormonal and Nervous Signalling 3.6.3 Central Information Processing 3.6.4 Sensory Input and Motor Output 3.6.5 Reflex Arcs and Movement Coordination 3.6.6 Circadian Rhythms and Hormonal Secretion 3.6.7 Endocrine System Control 3.6.8 Feedback Mechanisms in Body Regulation 3.6.9 Plant Responses and Phytohormones 3.6.10 Positive Feedback in Plant Processes

3.7.1 Pathogens and Disease 3.7.2 Body's Primary Defences 3.7.3 Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity 3.7.4 Lymphocytes and Antibody Production 3.7.5 Immunity and HIV 3.7.6 Antibiotics and Resistance 3.7.7 Zoonoses and COVID-19 3.7.8 Vaccines, Herd Immunity, and Pandemics

3.8.1 Population Dynamics 3.8.2 Carrying Capacity and Population Control 3.8.3 Community Interactions 3.8.4 Invasive Species and Competition 3.8.5 Predator-Prey Dynamics 3.8.6 Allelopathy and Antibiotic Secretion

3.9.1 Ecosystems and Energy Sources 3.9.2 Autotrophs and Heterotrophs 3.9.3 Trophic Levels and Energy Pyramids 3.9.4 Energy Loss and Ecosystem Structure 3.9.5 The Carbon Cycle 3.9.6 Analysis of Carbon Flux 3.9.7 Element Recycling in Ecosystems

3.1.1 Understanding Enzymes and Metabolism 3.1.2 Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity 3.1.3 Enzyme Kinetics and Activation Energy 3.1.4 Intracellular and Extracellular Enzymes 3.1.5 Pathways in Metabolism 3.1.6 Competitive, Non-competitive Inhibition and Feedback Inhibition 3.1.7 Enzyme Inhibition and Resistance

3.2.1 ATP and Cell Respiration 3.2.2 Anaerobic vs. Aerobic Respiration 3.2.3 Investigating Cell Respiration 3.2.4 Role of NAD in Oxidation-Reduction 3.2.5 Glycolysis and Lactate Formation 3.2.6 Anaerobic Respiration in Yeast 3.2.7 The Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport 3.2.8 Chemiosmosis and ATP Synthesis 3.2.9 Oxygen's Role and Respiratory Substrates

3.3.1 Energy Transformation in Photosynthesis 3.3.2 Photosynthetic Pigments and Light Absorption 3.3.3 Investigating Photosynthesis Limiting Factors 3.3.4 Predicting Photosynthesis and Plant Growth 3.3.5 Photosystems and Pigment Arrays 3.3.6 Oxygen Generation and ATP Production 3.3.7 NADP Reduction and Thylakoid Functions 3.3.8 The Calvin Cycle and Carbon Fixation 3.3.9 Interdependence of Photosynthetic Reactions

3.4.1 Receptors and Ligands in Chemical Signalling 3.4.2 Diversity and Function of Signalling Chemicals 3.4.3 Localization and Impact of Signalling Molecules 3.4.4 Receptor Types and Signal Transduction 3.4.5 Transmembrane Receptors and Cellular Responses 3.4.6 Hormone-Receptor Interactions and Cellular Effects 3.4.7 Intracellular Receptors and Gene Expression

3.5.1 Neurons and Their Role in the Nervous System 3.5.2 Resting and Action Potentials in Neurons 3.5.3 Speed Variations in Nerve Impulse Transmission 3.5.4 Synaptic Transmission and Neurotransmitters 3.5.5 Action Potential Dynamics 3.5.6 Advanced Neural Signalling Techniques 3.5.7 Exogenous Chemicals and Neural Regulation 3.5.8 Complex Neural Interactions and Consciousness

3.6.1 System Integration and Coordination 3.6.2 Hormonal and Nervous Signalling 3.6.3 Central Information Processing 3.6.4 Sensory Input and Motor Output 3.6.5 Reflex Arcs and Movement Coordination 3.6.6 Circadian Rhythms and Hormonal Secretion 3.6.7 Endocrine System Control 3.6.8 Feedback Mechanisms in Body Regulation 3.6.9 Plant Responses and Phytohormones 3.6.10 Positive Feedback in Plant Processes

3.7.1 Pathogens and Disease 3.7.2 Body's Primary Defences 3.7.3 Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity 3.7.4 Lymphocytes and Antibody Production 3.7.5 Immunity and HIV 3.7.6 Antibiotics and Resistance 3.7.7 Zoonoses and COVID-19 3.7.8 Vaccines, Herd Immunity, and Pandemics

3.8.1 Population Dynamics 3.8.2 Carrying Capacity and Population Control 3.8.3 Community Interactions 3.8.4 Invasive Species and Competition 3.8.5 Predator-Prey Dynamics 3.8.6 Allelopathy and Antibiotic Secretion

3.9.1 Ecosystems and Energy Sources 3.9.2 Autotrophs and Heterotrophs 3.9.3 Trophic Levels and Energy Pyramids 3.9.4 Energy Loss and Ecosystem Structure 3.9.5 The Carbon Cycle 3.9.6 Analysis of Carbon Flux 3.9.7 Element Recycling in Ecosystems

4. Continuity and Change
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4.1.1 Basics of DNA Replication 4.1.2 DNA Replication Tools & Applications 4.1.3 Advanced DNA Replication Processes 4.1.4 Replication Components in Prokaryotes 4.1.5 DNA Proofreading and Repair Mechanisms

4.2.1 Transcription Fundamentals 4.2.2 Gene Expression 4.2.3 Translation Basics 4.2.4 Genetic Code Features 4.2.5 Translation Process 4.2.6 Advanced Transcription and Translation 4.2.7 Post-transcriptional Modifications 4.2.8 Protein Modification and Recycling

4.3.1 Types and Consequences of Mutations 4.3.2 Causes and Randomness of Mutations 4.3.3 Implications of Mutations 4.3.4 Gene Knockout Techniques 4.3.5 CRISPR-Cas9 Technology 4.3.6 Conserved Genetic Sequences

4.4.1 Generation of New Cells 4.4.2 Cytokinesis 4.4.3 Roles of Mitosis and Meiosis 4.4.4 Chromosome Dynamics 4.4.5 Phases of Mitosis 4.4.6 Meiosis and Genetic Diversity 4.4.7 Cell Proliferation 4.4.8 Cell Cycle Control 4.4.9 Tumor Characteristics

4.5.1 Gene Expression Mechanisms 4.5.2 Regulation of Transcription 4.5.3 Epigenesis and Differentiation 4.5.4 Epigenetic Modifications 4.5.5 Environmental Impacts

4.6.1 Solvation and Water Movement 4.6.2 Effects on Plant and Animal Cells 4.6.3 Medical and Practical Applications 4.6.4 Water Potential Concepts 4.6.5 Solute and Pressure Potentials

4.7.1 Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction 4.7.2 Human Reproductive Anatomy 4.7.3 Fertilization and IVF 4.7.4 Plant Reproduction 4.7.5 Puberty and Hormonal Control 4.7.6 Gamete Formation and Fertilization Mechanisms 4.7.7 Pregnancy and Childbirth 4.7.8 Hormone Replacement Therapy

4.8.1 Basics of Inheritance 4.8.2 Genotype and Phenotype 4.8.3 Genetic Disorders and Variations 4.8.4 Complex Patterns of Inheritance 4.8.5 Pedigree Analysis and Continuous Variation 4.8.6 Meiosis and Genetic Diversity 4.8.7 Gene Mapping and Linkage 4.8.8 Statistical Analysis in Genetics

4.9.1 Basics of Homeostasis 4.9.2 Negative Feedback in Homeostasis 4.9.3 Blood Glucose Regulation and Diabetes 4.9.4 Thermoregulation in Humans 4.9.5 Kidney Function and Osmoregulation 4.9.6 Advanced Osmoregulation and Blood Supply Changes

4.10.1 Evolution and Natural Selection 4.10.2 Mutation and Sexual Reproduction 4.10.3 Competition and Natural Selection 4.10.4 Abiotic Factors and Selection Pressures 4.10.5 Adaptation and Fitness 4.10.6 Sexual Selection 4.10.7 Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies 4.10.8 Hardy–Weinberg Principle and Artificial Selection

4.11.1 Ecosystem Stability 4.11.2 Requirements for Ecosystem Stability 4.11.3 Deforestation and Ecosystem Tipping Points 4.11.4 Modeling Ecosystem Stability 4.11.5 Keystone Species and Sustainability 4.11.6 Pollution and Ecosystem Health 4.11.7 Rewilding and Ecosystem Restoration 4.11.8 Ecological Succession

4.12.1 Anthropogenic Causes 4.12.2 Feedback Cycles and Global Warming 4.12.3 Tipping Points in Ecosystems 4.12.4 Polar Habitat Changes 4.12.5 Oceanic Changes 4.12.6 Range Shifts of Species 4.12.7 Threats to Coral Reefs 4.12.8 Phenology and Climate Change

4.1.1 Basics of DNA Replication 4.1.2 DNA Replication Tools & Applications 4.1.3 Advanced DNA Replication Processes 4.1.4 Replication Components in Prokaryotes 4.1.5 DNA Proofreading and Repair Mechanisms

4.2.1 Transcription Fundamentals 4.2.2 Gene Expression 4.2.3 Translation Basics 4.2.4 Genetic Code Features 4.2.5 Translation Process 4.2.6 Advanced Transcription and Translation 4.2.7 Post-transcriptional Modifications 4.2.8 Protein Modification and Recycling

4.3.1 Types and Consequences of Mutations 4.3.2 Causes and Randomness of Mutations 4.3.3 Implications of Mutations 4.3.4 Gene Knockout Techniques 4.3.5 CRISPR-Cas9 Technology 4.3.6 Conserved Genetic Sequences

4.4.1 Generation of New Cells 4.4.2 Cytokinesis 4.4.3 Roles of Mitosis and Meiosis 4.4.4 Chromosome Dynamics 4.4.5 Phases of Mitosis 4.4.6 Meiosis and Genetic Diversity 4.4.7 Cell Proliferation 4.4.8 Cell Cycle Control 4.4.9 Tumor Characteristics

4.5.1 Gene Expression Mechanisms 4.5.2 Regulation of Transcription 4.5.3 Epigenesis and Differentiation 4.5.4 Epigenetic Modifications 4.5.5 Environmental Impacts

4.6.1 Solvation and Water Movement 4.6.2 Effects on Plant and Animal Cells 4.6.3 Medical and Practical Applications 4.6.4 Water Potential Concepts 4.6.5 Solute and Pressure Potentials

4.7.1 Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction 4.7.2 Human Reproductive Anatomy 4.7.3 Fertilization and IVF 4.7.4 Plant Reproduction 4.7.5 Puberty and Hormonal Control 4.7.6 Gamete Formation and Fertilization Mechanisms 4.7.7 Pregnancy and Childbirth 4.7.8 Hormone Replacement Therapy

4.8.1 Basics of Inheritance 4.8.2 Genotype and Phenotype 4.8.3 Genetic Disorders and Variations 4.8.4 Complex Patterns of Inheritance 4.8.5 Pedigree Analysis and Continuous Variation 4.8.6 Meiosis and Genetic Diversity 4.8.7 Gene Mapping and Linkage 4.8.8 Statistical Analysis in Genetics

4.9.1 Basics of Homeostasis 4.9.2 Negative Feedback in Homeostasis 4.9.3 Blood Glucose Regulation and Diabetes 4.9.4 Thermoregulation in Humans 4.9.5 Kidney Function and Osmoregulation 4.9.6 Advanced Osmoregulation and Blood Supply Changes

4.10.1 Evolution and Natural Selection 4.10.2 Mutation and Sexual Reproduction 4.10.3 Competition and Natural Selection 4.10.4 Abiotic Factors and Selection Pressures 4.10.5 Adaptation and Fitness 4.10.6 Sexual Selection 4.10.7 Gene Pools and Allele Frequencies 4.10.8 Hardy–Weinberg Principle and Artificial Selection

4.11.1 Ecosystem Stability 4.11.2 Requirements for Ecosystem Stability 4.11.3 Deforestation and Ecosystem Tipping Points 4.11.4 Modeling Ecosystem Stability 4.11.5 Keystone Species and Sustainability 4.11.6 Pollution and Ecosystem Health 4.11.7 Rewilding and Ecosystem Restoration 4.11.8 Ecological Succession

4.12.1 Anthropogenic Causes 4.12.2 Feedback Cycles and Global Warming 4.12.3 Tipping Points in Ecosystems 4.12.4 Polar Habitat Changes 4.12.5 Oceanic Changes 4.12.6 Range Shifts of Species 4.12.7 Threats to Coral Reefs 4.12.8 Phenology and Climate Change

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