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AP Human Geography

Study Notes
1.1.1 Types of Maps
1.1.2 Types of Spatial Patterns Represented on Maps
1.1.3 Map Projections and Distortions
1.2.1 Methods of Geographic Data Collection
1.2.2 Geospatial Technologies
1.2.3 Sources of Spatial Information
1.3.1 Types of Geospatial and Geographic Data
1.3.2 Applications of Geographic Data in Decision-Making
1.3.3 Geographical Effects of Data-Driven Decisions
1.4.1 Defining Spatial Concepts
1.4.2 Spatial Interactions and Flows
1.4.3 Distance and Space-Time Relationships
1.4.4 Place and Spatial Patterns
1.5.1 Concepts of Nature and Society
1.5.2 Theories of Human–Environment Interaction
1.6.1 Defining Scales of Analysis
1.6.2 Variations and Interpretations Across Scales
1.7.1 Defining Regions
1.7.2 Types of Regions
1.7.3 Characteristics of Regional Boundaries
1.7.4 Applying Regional Analysis
2.1.1 Factors Influencing Population Distribution
2.1.2 Patterns of Population Distribution at Different Scales
2.1.3 Methods of Calculating Population Density
2.1.4 Differences and Impacts of Population Density Calculations
2.2.1 Effects on Political, Economic, and Social Processes
2.2.2 Effects on the Environment and Carrying Capacity
2.3.1 Elements of Population Composition
2.3.2 Tools for Analyzing Population Composition
2.4.1 Factors Influencing Population Growth and Decline
2.4.2 Measuring Population Growth and Decline
2.4.3 Social, Cultural, Political, and Economic Influences
2.5.1 The Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
2.5.2 The Epidemiological Transition
2.6.1 Understanding Malthusian Theory
2.6.2 Application of Malthusian Theory
2.6.3 Critiques of Malthusian Theory
2.6.4 Relevance of Malthusian Theory Today
2.7.1 Types of Population Policies
2.7.2 Immigration Policies
2.7.3 Effects of Population Policies
2.8.1 Changing Social Values and Access to Resources
2.8.2 Influence of Women’s Changing Roles on Demographic Patterns
2.9.1 Causes of Population Aging
2.9.2 Consequences of Population Aging
2.10.1 Push and Pull Factors
2.10.2 Intervening Opportunities and Obstacles
2.11.1 Forced Migration
2.11.2 Voluntary Migration
2.12.1 Political Effects of Migration
2.12.2 Economic Effects of Migration
2.12.3 Cultural Effects of Migration
3.1.1 Components of Culture
3.1.2 Cultural Traits
3.1.3 Attitudes Toward Cultural Differences
3.2.1 Characteristics of Cultural Landscapes
3.2.2 Cultural Beliefs and Identities in Landscapes
3.3.1 Regional Patterns of Language, Religion, and Ethnicity
3.3.2 Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces
3.4.1 Relocation Diffusion
3.4.2 Expansion Diffusion
3.5.1 Interactions and New Cultural Expressions
3.5.2 Colonialism and Imperialism
3.5.3 Trade and Cultural Diffusion
3.6.1 Processes Impacting Cultural Change
3.6.2 Communication Technologies and Time-Space Convergence
3.7.1 Factors Leading to the Diffusion of Religion and Language
3.7.2 Visual Representation of Diffusion
3.7.3 Diffusion Processes of Religions
3.7.4 Practices and Belief Systems in Diffusion
3.8.1 Acculturation
3.8.2 Assimilation
3.8.3 Syncretism
3.8.4 Multiculturalism
4.1.1 Defining Political Entities
4.1.2 Identifying Examples of Political Entities
4.2.1 Concepts Shaping Contemporary Political Geography
4.2.2 Influence of Colonialism and Imperialism
4.2.3 Independence Movements
4.2.4 Devolution Along National Lines
4.3.1 Political Power
4.3.2 Territoriality
4.4.1 Relic Boundaries
4.4.2 Superimposed Boundaries
4.4.3 Subsequent Boundaries
4.4.4 Antecedent Boundaries
4.4.5 Geometric Boundaries
4.4.6 Consequent Boundaries
4.5.1 Defining, Delimiting, Demarcating, and Administering Boundaries
4.5.2 Boundaries and Cultural, National, or Economic Divisions
4.5.3 Land and Maritime Boundaries
4.5.4 Influence of Boundaries on Interactions and Resource Disputes
4.6.1 Voting Districts
4.6.2 Redistricting
4.6.3 Gerrymandering
4.7.1 Definition of Federal States
4.7.2 Definition of Unitary States
4.7.3 Spatial Organization of Federal States
4.7.4 Spatial Organization of Unitary States
4.8.1 Physical Geography and Devolution
4.8.2 Ethnic Separatism
4.8.3 Ethnic Cleansing
4.8.4 Terrorism and Devolution
4.8.5 Economic and Social Problems
4.8.6 Irredentism
4.9.1 Devolution and Fragmentation of States
4.9.2 Communication Technology and Sovereignty
4.9.3 Supranationalism and Sovereignty
4.9.4 Supranational Organizations and Sovereignty
4.10.1 Centrifugal Forces and Their Impacts
4.10.2 Centripetal Forces and Their Impacts
5.1.1 Physical Geography and Agricultural Practices
5.1.2 Intensive Farming Practices
5.1.3 Extensive Farming Practices
5.2.1 Agricultural Practices and Rural Land-Use Patterns
5.2.2 Rural Settlement Patterns
5.2.3 Rural Survey Methods
5.3.1 Centers of Plant and Animal Domestication
5.3.2 Diffusion of Plants and Animals
5.4.1 Advances in Technology
​​5.4.2 Increased Food Production
5.4.3 Impacts on Society and Economy
5.5.1 Characteristics of the Green Revolution
5.5.2 Positive Consequences of the Green Revolution
5.5.3 Negative Consequences of the Green Revolution
5.6.1 Subsistence vs. Commercial Agriculture
5.6.2 Monocropping and Monoculture
5.6.3 Intensive and Extensive Farming Practices
5.7.1 Large-Scale Commercial Agriculture
5.7.2 Commodity Chains in Agriculture
5.7.3 Technology and Economies of Scale
5.8.1 Overview of the Von Thünen Model
5.8.2 Importance of Transportation Costs
5.8.3 Application and Limitations of the Von Thünen Model
5.8.4 Real-World Examples
5.9.1 Global Supply Chains in Agriculture
5.9.2 Export Commodities and Dependency
5.9.3 Political Relationships and Global Food Distribution
5.10.1 Environmental Effects of Agricultural Land Use
5.10.2 Landscape Changes from Agricultural Practices
5.10.3 Societal Effects of Agricultural Practices
5.11.1 Agricultural Innovations and Environmental Debates
5.11.2 Food Movements and Individual Food Choices
5.11.3 Global Food Access and Population Challenges
5.11.4 Economic Factors in Food Production
5.12.1 Female Roles in Food Production
5.12.2 Female Roles in Food Distribution
5.12.3 Female Roles in Food Consumption
5.12.4 Geographic Variations in Female Roles
6.1.1 Site and Situation of Cities
6.1.2 Factors Driving Urbanization
6.1.3 Suburbanization
6.2.1 Megacities and Metacities
6.2.2 Suburbanization, Sprawl, and Decentralization
6.2.3 New Urban Land-Use Forms
6.3.1 World Cities and the Global Urban Hierarchy
6.3.2 Global Connectivity Through Urban Networks
6.4.1 Urban Hierarchy and Concepts
6.4.2 Rank-Size Rule
6.4.3 Primate Cities
6.4.4 Gravity Model
6.4.5 Christaller’s Central Place Theory
6.5.1 Burgess Concentric-Zone Model
6.5.2 Hoyt Sector Model
6.5.3 Harris and Ullman Multiple-Nuclei Model
6.5.4 Galactic City Model
6.5.5 Bid-Rent Theory
6.5.6 Urban Models from Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa
6.6.1 Characteristics of Low-, Medium-, and High-Density Housing
6.6.2 Land Use and Urban Culture
6.6.3 Cycles of Development
6.7.1 Definition and Importance of Infrastructure
6.7.2 Infrastructure and Economic Development
6.7.3 Infrastructure and Social Development
6.7.4 Infrastructure and the Environment
6.7.5 Local Politics and Infrastructure
6.8.1 Definition and Importance of Urban Sustainability
6.8.2 Sustainable Urban Design Initiatives
6.8.3 Effects of Urban Design Initiatives
6.8.4 Urban Sustainability Practices
6.9.1 Introduction to Urban Data
6.9.2 Quantitative Data and Urban Analysis
6.9.3 Qualitative Data and Urban Analysis
6.9.4 Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Data
6.9.5 Challenges in Using Urban Data
6.10.1 Economic and Social Challenges in Urban Areas
6.10.2 Squatter Settlements and Land Tenure Conflicts
6.10.3 Responses to Urban Challenges
6.10.4 Urban Renewal and Gentrification
6.10.5 Geographic Fragmentation of Governance
6.11.1 Challenges to Urban Sustainability
6.11.2 Responses to Urban Sustainability Challenges
6.11.3 Evaluating Effectiveness of Solutions
6.11.4 Long-Term Challenges and Innovations
7.1.1 Origins of the Industrial Revolution
7.1.2 Growth and Diffusion of Industrialization
7.1.3 Urbanization and Social Changes
7.1.4 Link Between Industrialization and Colonialism
7.2.1 Overview of Economic Sectors
7.2.2 Spatial Patterns of Economic Sectors
7.2.3 Factors Influencing Industrial Location
7.2.4 Core, Semiperiphery, and Periphery
7.3.1 Social and Economic Indicators of Development
7.3.2 Gender Inequality in Development
7.3.3 Composite Measures of Development
7.4.1 Changes in Women’s Roles with Economic Development
7.4.2 Gender Inequity in Wages and Employment
7.4.3 Microloans and Women's Empowerment
7.5.1 Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth
7.5.2 Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory
7.5.3 Dependency Theory
7.5.4 Commodity Dependence
7.6.1 Complementarity and Comparative Advantage
7.6.2 Neoliberal Policies and Trade Agreements
7.6.3 Government Initiatives and Economic Development
7.6.4 Global Financial Crises and Interdependence
7.7.1 Outsourcing and Economic Restructuring
7.7.2 Growth of Industry in Non-Core Countries
7.7.3 Post-Fordist Production and Economic Transformation
7.7.4 Emergence of Service Sectors and Growth Poles
7.8.1 Principles of Sustainable Development
7.8.2 Sustainable Development Policies
7.8.3 Ecotourism
7.8.4 The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

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